ENCYCLOPAEDIA JJRITANNICA KIJEVENTH ' 1 •a taHaa •H •. •y- '•&wm THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty . 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF * ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL to REEVES Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 AE. •E 3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. of j: A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -J Pope. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHF.R, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, iSj^-iSgs. Gold Medallist, J D«V t;<* Royal Society, 1878. "Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia,\ Salientia and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of ] D--_V..« / • History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia') " fan)- of Eusebius. A. D. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D, D.C.L. f ^ Matthe, See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ n A. de W. F. ARTHUR DE WINT FOOTE. _f Power Transmission: Superintendent of North Star Mining Company, California. ^ Pneumatic. A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J _ , the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life \ Predestination. of Jesus ; &c. I A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the \ Quesada y Matheus. Bourbons in Spain. \, A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. 4 Priapuloidea. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale; •{ Prison. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. I A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. f _ . t . . A See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. /- _ . . Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of -j Primitive Methodist Church; Mysore Educational Service. [_ Priscillian. A. L. ANDREW LANG. J Poltergeist; Prometheus; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. "^ Psychical Research. A. McA. ALEXANDER McAuLAY, M.A. (" Professor of Mathematics and Physics, University of Tasmania. Author of Utility J. Quaternions (in part), of Quaternions in Physics; &c. A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Source s s Publican!. of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. f Pratincole; Quail; Quezal: A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ^aU ((n0part\,n See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Raven; Razorbill; Redshank; Redstart; 1 Redwing. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1991 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. f Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- "j Prostitution. Supply ; Industrial Efficiency ; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J i>,,fi.0. Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 ^nagoras n part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. I A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of i Pterodactyles. the Geological Society of London. L A. T. H. C. T. J. ARTHUR TWINING HADLEY, LL.D. f „ .. See the biographical article: HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING. \ «»«ways: Economics. A. Wi.* ANEURIN WILLIAMS, M.A. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Chairman of Executive, International I _ „, . . Co-operative Alliance. M. P. for Plymouth, 1910. Author of Twenty-eight Years | t-snarmg. of Co-partnership at Guise; &c. A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books -j Polyglott. and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe " Chaucer. A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the-{ Proclamation. Laws of England. I B. B. A. BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. _f » •• Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. \ Railways: Accident Statistics. C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LiTT. /n,,i,,i,0, See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. \ Quicnerat. C. E. W. C. E. WEBBER, C.B., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.E.E. (1838-1905). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Served in Indian Mutiny, 1857-1860; Egyptian I Railways: Light Railways (in Expedition, 1882; &c. Founder (with late Sir Francis Bolton) and Past President j tart) of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. L * C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. [" Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal •{ Ravenna: Battle of 1512. Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [ C. G. Cr. CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of J Record. Lander's Works; &c. C, Hi. CHARLES HIAIT. Author of Picture Posters; &c. Poster. C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member -! Purgatory, of the American Historical Association. C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. J _ . _ . . See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ Proverbs, Book of. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. Polo, Marco (In part); Ptolemy (in part); Pytheas (in part). CHARLES T. JACOBI. f p..inHn(r Managing Partner of the Chiswick Press, London. Author of Printing; &c. \ r D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional H Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon ; J Raffles, Sir Thomas. India in the if>th Century ; History of Belgium ; &c. D. D. A. REV. DANIEL DULANY ADDISON, D.D. C Rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. Examining Chaplain to Bishop of J n,nt0ctanf Fnicrnml rhurph Massachusetts. Secretary, Cathedral Chapter of Diocese of Massachusetts. Author 1 of The Episcopalians ; &c. I D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The •< Programme MUSIC. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. t D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, j Priene; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and ~ 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll D. H. D. H. S. D. W. T. E. A. J. E. A. M. E. Ba. E. Br. E. B. E. E. C. B. E. G. E. Ga. E. Gr. E. G. C. E. H. B. » E. J. J. E. O'N. E. Pr. E. Ru. E. R. B. F. C. C. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. Quiberon, Battle of; Raleigh, Sir Walter. DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. I 'resident of the Linnean Society. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, -j Pringsheim, Nathanael. London, 1885-1892. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. I D'ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON, C.B., M.A. Professor of Natural History, University College, Dundee. British Delegate, J Ray John. Bering Sea Fisheries and other Conferences. Author of A Glossary of Creek Birds ; \ &c. I le of Man; Old Silver] Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue^ Quaich. E. ALFRED JONES. Author of Old English Gold Plate ; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man ; Old Silver of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c. EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow Merton College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy University College, London. EDWIN BALE, R.I. Art Director, Cassell & Company, Ltd. Member of the Royal Institute of Painters 4 Process, in Water Colours. Hon. Sec., Artists' Copyright Committee. , f Polyp; 01 4 Protoplasm; [ Protozoa. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Fellow and Tutor of Merton (Raymund of Antioch; Raymund of Toulouse; Raymund of Tripoli; »» t J _• r>l_ " *: II Raynald of Chatillon. EDWARD B. ELLINGTON. f Founder and Chief Engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd. Author of J Power Transmission: Contributions to Proceedings of Institutions of Civil Engineers and of Mechanical 1 Hydraulic. Engineers. I RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lrrr.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Premonstratensians ; Ranee, Armand de. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Electrical Undertakings; &c. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. J Prologue; Prose. Ltd. Author of Manual of . Li&hi *«''«"»yf (in part). Propylaea. ERNEST GEORGE COKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), M.Sc., M.I.MECH.E. f Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical J , College. Author of various papers in Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, I Edinburgh and Canada ; &c. I SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f Pompeii (in part); M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; •< Ptolemy (in part) ; &c. [ Pytheas (in part). EDMUND JANES JAMES, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. f President of the University of Illinois; President of American Economic Associa- I Protection tion. Author of History of American Tariff Legislation, and Essays and Mono- | graphs on Economic, Financial, Political and Educational subjects. L ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (Mrs H. O. O'Neill). Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. Prebendary; Prelate; Prior; Procurator. EDGAR PRESTAGE. I" Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. J Commendador, Portuguese Order of S Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 1 Portugal: Literature. Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. ERNEST RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. , D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D. f Langworthy Professor of Physics, University of Manchester. Nobel Prize for -I Radio-activity . Chemistry, 1908. Author of Radio-activity; Radio-active Transformations; &c. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus ; Jerusalem under the High \ Ptolemies. Priests. [ FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J purification. Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and"] Morals; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. C. S. S. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. f Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the \ Pragmatism. Sphinx ; Studies in Humanism ; &c. F. Dr. FRANCIS M. D. DRUMMOND. \ Precedence (in part). F. D. A. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, PH.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S. f Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill - , . .. University, Montreal; President of Canadian Mining Institute. Author of Papers-! MUBDec (in part); dealing with problems of Metamorphism, &c., also Researches on Experimental Queen Charlotte Islands. Geology; &c. F. E. W. REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., F.S.A. Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds, and Honorary Canon of Ely. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into \ Prayer, Book Of Common. English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals ; The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church ; &c. F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f p . Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). \ in< F. H. D.* FRANK HAIGH DIXON, PH.D., A.M. Professor of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Member of the 4 Kailways: American Railway National Waterways Commission. Author of State Railroad Control. { Legislation. F. J. H. M. HON. FREDERICK JAMES HAMILTON MERRILL, PH.D., F.G.S. (America), M. f AMERICAN INST.M.E., &c. Consulting Geologist and Mining Engineer. State Geologist of New York, "j Quarrying. 1899—1904. Author of Reports of New Jersey and New York Geological Surveys; &c. F. K.* FERNAND KHNOPFF. J See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, F. E. J. M. \ rortaels, J. F. F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Psammetichus' Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial •{ TJQ_ German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; I Kameses (in fan>- &c. [ F. M. L.* FRANCIS MANLEY LOWE. Major R.A. (retired). Member of the Staff of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., Elswick Works. Assistant-Superintendent of Experiments, Shoebury- -i Range-finder, ness, 1898-1903. Author of articles in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery I Institution; &c. F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910). Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research ; Modern -j prernonition F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f Portuguese East Africa; Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Rabah Zobeir. F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room. Pound (in part,) F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r p .. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J *~"rl' President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Pyrope, F. Y. E. FRANCIS YSIDRO EDGEWORTH, M.A., D.C.L. Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, and of King's College, London. Editor of the Economic Journal. * Author of Mathematical Psychics, and numerous papers on the Calculus of Proba- I bilities in the Philosophical Magazine; &c. G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898- 1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- President of the Royal J Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages 1 Rajasthani. of India ; &c. G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. r Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J „ . p. Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition 1 "rieur, Pierre, of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. G. E.* ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS. f Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Joint-editor of English J. Privy Council. Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History. G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The J Ramsay Allan. Days of James I V. ; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1005). f Ptolemy (in part)- Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j _ . . /-.,..._L/_.. Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid ; &c. \ Pythagoras. Geometry. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Provision; Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden •{ T, Society. I RaPe' INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix G. Re. SIR GEORGE REID, LL. I). f_ See the biographical article: REID, SIR GEORGE. \ Portraiture. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Quinet; Rabelais; See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. | Racine. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -I Rawendis. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I H. A. Y. HORATIO ARTHUR YORKE, C.B. f jjaiiu/avc- R,,-/,'C;, /?,;/„,, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. (retired). Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways, Board oH Railways, fin/, j/, Railway Trade. Served in Afghan War, 1879-1880; Nile Expedition, 1884-1885. I Legislation. H. D. W. SIR HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. (1830-1908). f Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at Madrid, 1892-1900. M.P. for I .>_!_,„.. i. ._.... Christchurch, 187.1-1880; for Portsmouth, 1880-1885. Author of A Life o/| Napoleon at Elba ; &c. H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ 5 Puvis de chavannes. Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts. Pans. (. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW. F.R.S., PH.D. f Python; Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author^ Ratitae; of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. I Rattlesnake (in part) H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.I.. /D«I,,I,I,, See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. \ PolyblUS (in part). H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO ROSS. f Railways' Inlrntiurtim Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering i Supplement. Author of British Railways. ( siruction, Rolling Slock. H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.G.S. Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, } p j g^ Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. ] Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. H. 0. HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., PH.D. ( Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in the University of Oxford. Mem- I ProvenQal Literature: ber of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Litera- j Modern. lure; &c. I H. R. L. THE REV. HENRY RICHARDS LUARD, M.A., D.D. (1825-1891). Registrary of the University of Cambridge, 1862-1891. Formerly Fellow, Bursar and Lecturer at Trinity College. Honorary Fellow of King's College, London. -| Person (in part). Editor of the Annales Monastici; the Historia of Matthew Paris and other works for the " Rolls " Series, [ H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN. London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Author of a Dutch biography, J. Potgieter. and various pamphlets and travel works, including Via Flushing. H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of " The I Commentary on Acts" in the Westminster New Testament;. Handbook on the]. Presbyter. Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible. I H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Ralph of Coggeshall. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Polo, Marco (in part); "i See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. "i prester John; Ramusio. Proselyte; Qaraites; Qaro; EL BRAHAMS, .. R h R Reader. in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ Rabbah „ . I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. R h R in«;pnh Rpn Hama . Bar Nahmani; History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Rapoport. Samuel; I Rashbam; Rashi. J. A. B. SIR JERVOISE ATHELSTANE BAINES, C.S.I. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under the Government of India, 1889-1893. Secretary to Royal Commission on Opium, J Population. 1894-1895. Author of Official Reports on Provincial Administration of Indian 1 Census Operations; &c. J. A. BI. JOHN A. BLACK. Press reader of the New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (loth ed.). | * J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology. London. Author of J Pre-Cambrian. The Geology of Building Stones. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f pontanus Jovianus. See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A. I J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D. ( Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J pn_nn /,•„ /,.,,.»') Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A History of Classical 1 Scholarship; &c. L x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lirr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. [ Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -{ Quevedo V Villegas Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of I Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. 3. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln "] Pontus. College. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f „ , See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING. [ Praefect (in part); J. G. FT. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lrrr.p. Praeneste (in part); Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, •{ Praetor (in part) ; Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. Proserpine (in part); [ Province (in part). 3. G. K. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demon- strator in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's •< Ray (in part) College, Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, ' Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1904. J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; -i Rangoon. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. 3. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -| Puttkammer. Das Rheinland unter der Franzosische Herrschaft. 3. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J Raphael. Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding J Purim. Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. 3. L.* SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in _ ,. ,. _. . the University. Secretary of the Roval Societv. Professor of Natural Philosoohv. J Kaaiauon' Ineory Ot; the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philosophy, Queen's College, Galway, 1880-1885. memoirs on Mathematics and Physics. Queen's College, Galway", 1880^1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and various Radiometer. J. M. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court. Counsel to the Board of Trade and London Chamber of Commerce. Formerly Quain Professor of Comparative Law, University College, *j Protectorate. London. Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c. J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r D . „. . Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J romponazzi, t College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Price, Richard. J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J Prefect; Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droil i Provost (in France). franfais ; &c. J. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. r Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Propertius, SextUS. Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. J. R.* JOHN RANDALL. r Formerly Secretary of the London Association of Correctors of the Press. Sub- J ppnnf roorfino- (i* ^,,,f\ editor of the Athenaeum and Notes and Queries. \ Pr00lH J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Pornhvrv Pnmir Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- f"UI burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby H ryroxemte; Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Quartzite; Quartz-Porphyry. J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. r Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, J o . .... Cambridge. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's 1 yul nan' Academia, De Amicitia; &c. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. f Poltava (in part); Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Pskov (in part) • Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I i»aJom (•• j. A INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI J. T. Cr. J. W. J. W.* J. W. G. K. G. J. K. S. L. BI. L. J. S. L. Wr. L. W. V.-H. M. Br. M. Ha. M. M. Bh. M. N. T, M. 0. B. C. N. M. N. W. T. 0. C. W. 0. H. P. A. K. Fellow of Lincoln JAMES TROUBRIDGE CRITCHELL. London Correspondent of the Australasian Pastoralists' Review, North Queensland J QIIO,,nclanH. HV <•<,*., Herald; &c. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Author of Polynesian \ Labour in Queensland ; Guide to Queensland ; &c. JAMES WILLIAMS, D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford. College. Author of Wills and Succession; &c. TAMES WARD, LL.D. See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J _ _„.„_.•. /-. , . Author of The Dead Heart'} Queensland: Geology \ Possession (law); 1 Prescription (in part) I Psychology. Mineralogy at the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904 of A ustralia ; &c. I KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNF,. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Editor of the Portfolio cf Musical Archaeology. Orchestra. f Portugal: Geography and Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. -j History Pommer; Portative Organ; Positive Organ; Psaltery; Rackett; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec; Recorder (music); Reed Instruments. Author of The Instruments of the . COUNT LUTZOW, Lrrr.D. (Oxon.), D.Pn. (Prague), F.R.G.S. f Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member j of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. -j Prague. Author of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John IIus; &c. Louis BELL, PH.D. f Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Trans- J Power Transmission: mission Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical ] Electrical. World, New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission ; &c. (. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Proustite; Pyrargyrite; Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j pvrnliicitp- Pvrnmnrnhita- Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- } L-vro ogical Magazine. ( Pyrrhotite; Quartz; Realgar. LEWIS WRIGHT. Author of The Practical Poultry Keeper; The New Book of Poultry; &c. L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers. MARGARET BRYANT. Poultry and Poultry-farming. J Reclamation of Land. •j Pope, Alexander (in part}. Formerly Fellow of 'the Royal in Cambridge Natural History; MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. University of Ireland. Author of " Protozoa " and papers for various scientific journals. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company ; &c. Proteomyxa; Radiolaria. | Readymoney, Author Sir cowasji Jehangir. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's -j Rabbula. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. ( Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the_ Soci6t<5 d'Anthropolpgip de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in Australia; &c. REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. _ Formerly Principal and Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology in the Countess " of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt. Author of Primer of Hebrew Antiquities; &c. OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the „ City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent Figures; &c. Pylos. J Poly crates; 1 Punic Wars. Possession (Psychology). Priest (in part); Prophet (in part). PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. Projection. [ Poltava (in part); < Pskov (in part); [ Radom (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f Prvnnp William a* Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. { tym, John P.O. PERCY GARDNER, LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A. / Polyelitus; Polygnotus; See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. 1 Praxiteles P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 Q» "• Society. t P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist A Potter, Paul. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. P. G. T. PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. f Quaternions (in *nrf\ See the biographical article : TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. \ ( P P. M. PAUL MEYER. / Provencal Language; See the biographical article: MEYER, PAUL HYACINTHE. I ProvenQal Literature (in part). P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; -' Reaping. &c. I R. H. K. REV. ROBERT HATCH KENNETT, M.A., D.D. Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, and Canon of Ely. Formerly Fellow and I Pcalmc Rnnlr nf (;M j, *i\ Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Queens' College, and University Lecturer in 1 Aramaic. Author of A Short Account of the Hebrew Tenses; In our Tongues; &c. L R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. I Pycnogonida. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formeriy Editor of the St James's ] Racquets. Gazette, London. L {Porcupine (in part); Porpoise* Primates- Prnhncoirtoa • Prnnir'hiiplr- rroDosciaea, rrongoucK, Rabbit (in part); Rat; Ratel. R. Mo. RAY MORRIS, M.A. ( Raiiwavs. r,pnprni ,„ Balancing of Engines; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism; &c. [ Kail ways. Locomotive fo ' xr. W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f ft _ Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ Quarter Sessions, Court of, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yA edition). [ Recognizance. W. G. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L. Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, J polytechnic (in part) Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; ' &c. W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Porcupine (in part); See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Rabbit (in part). W. H. L. WILLIAM H. LANG, M.B., D.Sc. Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester. xiv INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. L. G. W. M. W. M. F. P. W. 0. B. W. R. M. W. R. S. W. W. F.* W. Y. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Prince Edward Island; Formerly Beit Lecturer in J n,.-!,-.,. p... Colonial History at Oxford University." Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial 1 J*1" .' *_,r°mnce (in part) ; Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). I yuenec: Lily. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A., LL.D. See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LiTT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE. W. M. F. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A. Archdeacon of Birmingham. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884- 1891. Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900. Author of The Mystery of the Cross. Pope, Alexander (in part). Pyramid. Prayers for the Dead. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University I Pushkin of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; } Slavonic Literature; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. I r Priest (in part) ; I Prophet (in part); 1 Psalms, Book of (in [ Rameses (in part). WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,] Pontitex Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; \ The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. REV. WILLIAM YOUNG. r Minister, Higher Broughton Presbyterian Church, Manchester, 1877-1901, and -I Presbyterianism. Association Secretary for the Religious Tract Society in the North of England. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Pollination. Polygon. Polyhedron. Polynesia. Pomegranate. Pomerania. Pontoon. Poor Law. Poplar. Porto Rico. Portuguese Guinea. Potassium. Potato. Potentiometer. Prerogative. Press Laws. Primrose. Primulaceae. Princeton University. Principal and Agent. Probate. Procession. Proctor. Prohibition. Protestant. Prussia. Prussie Acid. Public Health. Publishing. Puffin. Pugilism. Pump. Punjab. Pyrazoles. Pyrenees. Pyridine. Pyrones. Quarantine. Quinine. Quinoline. Quinones. Radium. Rainbow. Ranunculaceae. Rare Earths. Raspberry. Rationalism. Ravenna, Exarchate of. Real Property. Red River. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL, strictly the head, in men or animals. Skeat connects the word with O. Swed. kolle (initial p and k being interchange- able), and considers a Celtic origin probable; cf. Irish coll, Welsh col, peak, summit. " Poll " is chiefly used in various senses derived from that of a unit in an enumeration of persons or things, e.g. poll-tax (q.v.), or " challenge to the polls " in the case of a jury (q.v.). The most familiar derivative uses are those connected with voting at parliamentary or other elections; thus " to poll " is to vote or to secure a number of votes, and " the poll," the voting, the number of votes cast, or the time during which voting takes place. The verb " to poll " also means to clip or shear the top of anything, hence " polled " of hornless cattle, or " deed-poll " (i.e. a deed with smooth or unindented edges, as distinguished from an " indenture "). A tree which has been " polled," or cut back dose in order to induce it to make short bushy growth, is called a " pollard." At the university of Cambridge, a " pass " degree is known as a " poll-degree." This is generally explained as from the Greek oi TToXXoi, the many, the common people. POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. • In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are well- flavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.) excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by the captors. Specimens of 12 Ib are common, but the species is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 Ib in weight. (See also COALFISH.) POLLAIUOLO, the popular name of the brothers Antonio and Piero di Jacobo Benci, Florentines who contributed much to Italian art in the isth century. They were called Pollaiuolo because their father was a poulterer. The nickname was also extended to Simone, the nephew of Antonio. ANTOXIO (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor, jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in perfecting the art of enamelling. His painting exhibits an excess of brutality, of which the characteristics can be studied in the " Saint Sebastian," painted in 1475, and now in the National Gallery, London. A " St Christopher and the Infant Christ " is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. But it was as a sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest suc- cesses. The exact ascription of his works is doubtful, as his brother Piero did much in collaboration with him. The museum of Florence contains the bronze group " Hercules strangling Cacus " and the terra-cotta bust " The Young Warrior "; and in the South Kensington Museum, London, is a bas-relief representing a contest between naked men. In 1489 Antonio took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of Sixtus IV. (1493), a composition in which he again manifested the quality of exaggeration in the anatomical features of the figures. In 1496 he went to Florence in order to put the finishing touches to the work already begun in the sacristy of Santo Spirito. He died in 1498, having just finished his mausoleum 'of Inno- cent VTIL, and was buried in the church of San Pietro in Vincula, where a monument was raised to him near that of his brother. PIERO (1443-1496) was a painter, and his principal works were his " Coronation of the Virgin," an altar-piece painted in 1483, in the choir of the cathedral at San Gimignano; his " Three Saints," an altar-piece, and " Prudence " axe both at the Uffizi Gallery. SIMONE (1457-1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a cele- brated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in 1484; there he entered his uncle's studio and studied architecture. On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion of the Strozzi palace begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the cornice on the facade has earned him lasting fame. His highly coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of U Cronaca (chronicler). About 1498 he built the church of San Francesco at Monte and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo Spirito. In collaboration with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed the great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio. He was a dose friend and adherent of Savonarola. See also Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907). POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a spedes of the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (whitefish) which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168. 5 POLLARD— POLLINATION POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828-1872), American journalist, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 27th of February 1828. He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1849, studied law at the College of William and Mary, and in Baltimore (where he was admitted to the bar), and was engaged in newspaper work in California until 1855. In 1857-1861 he was clerk of the judiciary committee of the National House of Representatives. By 1859 he had become an outspoken Secessionist, and during the Civil War he was one of the principal editors of the Richmond Examiner, which supported the Con- federacy but was hostile to President Jefferson Davis. In 1864 Pollard sailed for England, but the vessel on which he sailed was captured as a blockade runner, and he was confined in Fort Warren in Boston Harbour from the 29th of May until the i2th of August, when he was paroled. In December he was placed in close confinement at Fort Monroe by order of Secretary Stanton, but was soon again paroled by General B. F. Butler, and in January proceeded to Richmond to be exchanged there for Albert D. Richardson (1833-1869), a well-known corre- spondent of the New York Tribune, who, however, had escaped before Pollard arrived. In 1867-1869 Pollard edited a weekly paper at Richmond, and he conducted the Political Pamphlet there during the presidential campaign of 1868. His publications include Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey Homes of the South (1859), in which he advocated a reopening of the slave trade; The Southern History of the War (3 vols. : First Year of the War, with B. M. DeWitt, 1862; Second Year of the War, 1864; Third Year of the War, 1864); Observations in the North: Eight Months in Prison and on Parole (1865) ; Tlie Lost Cause (1866) ; Lee and His Lieutenants (1867); The Lost Cause Regained (1868), a southern view of reconstruction urging the necessity of white supremacy; The Life of Jefferson Davis (1869), an arraignment of the Confederate president; and The Virginia Tourist (1870). POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy. The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery. Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana is more probably a tomb. See G. Franchi-Pont in AM dell' accademia di Tornio (1805- 1808), p. 321 sqq. POLLINATION, in botany, the transference of the pollen from the stamen to the receptive surface, or stigma, of the pistil of a flower. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of flowers (see FLOWER) is intimately associated with pollination which is effected by aid of wind, insects and other agencies. Pollen may be transferred to the stigma of the same flower — self-pollination (or autogamy), or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species — cross- pollination (or allogamy). Effective pollination may also occur between flowers of different species, or occasionally, as in the case of several orchids, of different genera — this is known as hybridization. The method of pollination is to some extent governed by the distribution of the stamens and pistil. In the case of unisexual flowers, whether monoecious, that is, with staminate and pistillate flowers on one and the same plant, such as many of our native trees — oak, beech, birch, alder, &c., or dioecious with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants, as in willows and pop- lars, cross pollination only is possible. In bisexual or herma- phrodite flowers, that is, those in which both stamens and pistil are present, though self-pollination might seem the obvious course, this is often prevented or hindered by various arrange- ments which favour cross-pollination. Thus the anthers and stigmas in any given flower are often mature at different times; this condition, which is known as dichogamy and was first pointed out by Sprengel, may be so well marked that the stigma has ceased to be receptive before the anthers open, or the anthers have withered before the stigma becomes receptive, when cross- pollination only is possible, or the stages of maturity in the two organs are not so distinct, when self-pollination becomes possible later on. The flower is termed proteratidrous or proterogynous according as anthers or stigmas mature first. The term homogamy is applied to the simultaneous maturity of stigma and anthers. Spontaneous self-pollination is rendered impossible in some homogamous flowers in consequence of the relative position of the anthers and stigma — this condition has been termed herkogamy. Flowers in which the relative position of the organs allows of spontaneous self-pollination may be all alike as regards length of style and stamens (homomorphy or homostyly), or differ in this respect (heteromorphy) the styles (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bottmik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. I. — Long-styled, L, and short-styled, K, flowers of Primula sinensis. G, Level of stigma ; 5, level of anthers ; P, N, pollen grains and stigmatic papillae of long-styled form ; p, n, ditto of short-styled form. and stamens being of different lengths in different flowers (heterostyly) or the stamens only are of different lengths (heter- anthery). Flowers which are closed at the time of maturity of anthers and stigmas are termed cleistogamous. Self-pollination is effected in very various ways. In the simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, &c. In snowdrop and other pendulous flowers the anthers form a cone around the style and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect flowers the pollen may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly beneath the opening anthers (e.g. Nafthecium). In very many cases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or corolla or some other part of the ..flower, or by correlated move- ments of two or more parts. For instance, in many flowers the filaments are at first directed outwards so that self-pollina- tion is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and pollinate them (e.g. numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and others), or the style, which first projects beyond the anthers, shortens later on so that the anthers come into contact with the stigmas (e.g. species of Cactaceae), or the style bends so that the stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g. species of Oenothera, Epilobium,most Malvaceae, &c.). In Mirabilis Jalapa and others the filaments and style finally become intertwined, so that pollen is brought in contact with the stigma. Self- pollination frequently becomes possible towards the end of the life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable only of cross-pollination. This is associated with the fact, so ably demonstrated by Darwin, that, at any rate in a large number of cases, cross-pollination yields better results, as measured by the number of seeds produced and the strength of the offspring, than self-pollination; the latter is, however, preferable to absence of pollination. In many cases pollen has no effect on the stigma of the same flower, the plants are self- sterile, in other cases external pollen is more effective (pre-potent) than pollen from the same flower; but in a very large number of cases experiment has shown that there is little or no difference POLLINATION between the effects of external pollen and that from the same flower. Cross-pollination may occur between two flowers on the same plant (geitonogamy) or between flowers on distinct plants (xenogamy). The former, which is a somewhat less favourable method than the latter, is effected by air-currents, insect agency, the actual contact between stigmas and anthers in neighbouring flowers, where, as in the family Compositae, flowers are closely crowded, or by the fall of the pollen from a (From Darwin's Different Farms of Flowers by permission.) FIG. 2. — Diagram of the flowers of the three forms of Lythrum salicaria in their natural position, with the petals and calyx removed on the near side. (X 6 times.) The dotted lines with the arrow show the directions in which pollen must be carried to each stigma to ensure full fertility. higher on to the stigmas of a lower flower. Anton Kerner has shown that crowded inflorescences such as those of Compositae and Umbelliferae are especially adapted for geitonogamy. Xenogamy is of course the only possible method in diclinous plants; it is also the usual method in monoclinous plants, owing to the fact that stamens and carpels often mature at different times (dichogamy), the plants being proterandrous or protero- gynous. Even in homogamous flowers cross-pollination is in a large proportion of cases the effective method, at any rate at first, owing to the relative position of anther and stigma or the fact that the plant is self-sterile. The subject of heterostyly was investigated by Darwin (see his Forms of Flowers) and later by Hildebrand. In the case of a dimorphic flower, such as Primula, four modes of pollination are possible, two distinguished by Darwin as legitimate, between anthers and stigmas on corresponding levels, and two so-called illegitimate unions, between anthers and stigmas at different levels (cf. fig. i). In a trimorphic flower such as Lythrum salicaria there are six possible legitimate unions and twelve illegitimate (see fig. 2). Experiment showed that legitimate unions yield a larger quantity of seed than illegitimate. FIG. 3. — Cleistogamous Many plants produce, in addition to ordinary open flowers, so-called cleistogamous flowers, which remain permanently closed but which notwithstanding produce fruit; in these the corolla is inconspicuous or absent and the pollen grows from the anther on to the stigma of the same flower. Species of Viola (see fig. 3), Oxalis acelosella (wood sorrel) and Lamium amplexi- caule are commonly occurring in- stances. The cleistogamous flowers are developed before or after the normal open flowers at seasons less favourable for cross-pollination. In some cases flowers, which open under normal circumstances, remain closed owing to unfavourable circumstances, and self-pollination occurs as in a typical cleistogamous flower — these flower of Viola sylvatica. have been distinguished as pseudo- i, j|« ver X4. cleistogamous. Instances occur in mfgnifieTanTcut open7 water plants, where flowers are un- a, anther; s, pistil; able to reach the surface (e.g. Alisma st, style; v, stigmatic natans, water buttercup, &c.) or surface, where flowers remain closed in dull or cold weather. Systems of classification of flowers according to the agency by which pollination is effected have been proposed by Delpino, H. Mtiller and other workers on the subject. Knuth suggests the following, which is a modification of the systems proposed by Delpino and M tiller. A. Water-pollinated plants, Hydropkilae. A small group which is subdivided thus: — a. Pollinated under the water; e.g. Najas where the pollen grains are rather heavier than water, and sinking down are caught by the stigmas of the extremely simple female flowers. b. Pollination on the surface, a more frequent occurrence than (a). In these the pollen floats on the surface and reaches the stigmas of the female flowers as in Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea. In Vallisneria (fig. 4) the male flowers become detached and float on the surface of the water; . the anthers are thus brought in contact with the stigmas of the female flowers. B. Wind-pollinated plants, Anemophilae. — In these the pollen grains are smooth and light so as to be easily blown about, and are produced in great quantity; the stigmas are brush- like or feathery, and usually long and protruding so as readily to catch the pollen. As no means of attraction are required the flowers are inconspicuous and without scent or nectar. The male inflorescence is often a pendulous catkin, as in hazel and many native English trees (fig. 5) ; or the anthers are loosely fixed on long thread-like filaments as in grasses (fig. 6). B , B FIG. 4. — Vallisneria spiralis. A, female flower; s, stigmas. B, male flowers; I before; 2, after spreading of the petals. A male flower has floated alongside a female and one of its anthers, which have opened to set free the pollen, is in contact with a stigma, a, anther. C. Animal- pollinated plants, Zoidiophilae, are subdivided according to the kind of animal by agency of which pollination is effected, thus: — a. Bat-pollinated, Chiropterophilae. — A Freycinetia, native of Java, and a species of Bauhinia in Trinidad are visited by bats which transfer the pollen. POLLINATION b. Bird-pollinated, Ornithophilae. — Humming-birds and honey- suckers are agents of pollination in certain tropical plants; they visit the generally large and brightly-coloured flowers either for the honey which is secreted in considerable quantity or for the insects which have been attracted by the honey (fig. 7). FIG. FIG. 6. — Grass Flower show- 5. — Catkin of Male ing pendulous anthers and pro- Flowers of Hazel. truding hairy stigmas. Snail or slug-pollinated flowers, Malacophilae. — In small flowers which are crowded at the same level or in flat flowers in which the stigmas and anthers project but little, slugs or snails creeping over their surface may transfer to the stigma the pollen which clings to the slimy foot. Such a transfer has been described in various Aroids, Rohdea japonica (Liliaceae), and other plants. (From a drawing in the Botanical Gallery at the British Museum.) FIG. 7. — Flower of Datura sanguinea visited by humming-bird Docimastes ensi/erus. (About £ nat. size.) d. Insect-pollinated, Entomophilae, a very large class characterized by sticky pollen grains, the surface of which bears spines, warts or other projections (fig. 8) which facilitate adhesion to some part of the insect's body, and a relatively small stigma with a sticky surface. The flowers have an attractive floral envelope, are scented and often contain honey or a large amount of pollen; by these means the insect is enticed to visit it. The form, colour and scent _of the flower vary widely, according to the class of insect whose FIG. 8. — i, anther; 2, pollen grain of Hollyhock (Althaea rosea) enlarged. The pollen grain bears numerous spines, the dark spots indicate thin places in the outer wall. aid is sought, and there are also numerous devices for pro- tecting the pollen and nectar from rain and dew or from the visits of those insects which would not serve the purpose of pollen-transference (unbidden guests).1 The following subdivisions have been suggested A. Pollen Flowers. — These offer only pollen to their visitors, as species of anemone, poppy, rose, tulip, &c. They are simple in structure and regular in form, and the generally abundant pollen is usually freely exposed. B. Nectar Flowers. — These contain nectar and include the following groups: — 1. Flowers with exposed nectar, readily visible and accessible to all visitors. These are very simple, open and gener- ally regular flowers, white, greenish-yellow or yellow in colour and are chiefly visited by insects with a short proboscis, such as short -tongued wasps and flies, also beetles and more rarely bees. Examples are Umbelliferae as a family, saxifrages, holly, Acer, Rhamnus, Euonymus, Euphorbia, &c. 2. Flowers with nectar partly concealed and visible only in bright sunshine. The generally regular flowers are completely open only in bright sunshine, closing up into cups at other times. Such are most Cruciferae, buttercups, king-cup (Caltha), Potenlilla. White and yellow colours predominate and insects with a pro- boscis of medium length are the common pollinating agents, such as short -tongued bees. 3. Flowers with nectar concealed by pouches, hairs, &c. Regular flowers predominate, e.g. Geranium, Cardamine pratensis, mallows, Rubus, Oxalis, Epilobium, &c., but many species show more or less well-marked median symmetry (zygomorphism) as Euphrasia, Orchis, thyme, &c., and red, blue and violet are the usual colours. Long-tongued insects such as the honey-bee are the most frequent visitors. 4. Social flowers, whose nectar is concealed as in (3), but the flowers are grouped in heads which render them strikingly conspicuous, and several flowers can be simul- taneously pollinated. Such are Compositae as a class, also Scabiosa, Armeria (sea-pink) and others. 5. Hymenopterid flowers, which fall into the following groups: Bee-flowers proper, humble-bee flowers requiring a longer proboscis to reach the nectar, wasp-flowers such as fig-wort (Scrophularia nodosa) and ichneumon flowers such as t way-blade (Lislera ovata). The shapes and colours are extremely varied ; bilater- ally symmetrical forms are most frequent with red, blue or violet colours. Such are Papilionaceous flowers, Violaceae, many Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae and others. Many are highly specialized so that pollination can be effected by a few species only. Examples of more special mechanisms are illustrated by Salvia (fig. q). The long connective of the single stamen is hinged to the short filament and has a shorter arm ending in a blunt process and a longer arm bearing a half-anther. A large bee in probing for honey comes in contact with the end of the short arm of the lever and causes the longer arm to descend and the pollen is deposited on the back of the insect (fig. 9, i). In a later stage (fig. 9, 2) the style elongates and the forked stigma occupies the same position as the anther in fig- 9- i- (From Strasburger's Lekrbuck der Bolanik , by FIG. 9. — Pollination 1, Flower visited by a humble- bee, showing the projection of the curved connective bearing the anther from the helmet- shaped upper lip and the depo- sition of the pollen on the back of the humble-bee. 2, Older flower, with connective drawn back, and elongated style. permission of Gustav Fischer.) of Salvia pratensis. 4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective enclosed within the upper lip. 3, The same, when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow;/, filament; c, connective; s, the obstructing half of the anther. 1 See A. Kerner, Plants and their Unbidden Guests. POLLIO In Broom there is an explosive machanism; the pressure of the insect visitor on the keel of the corolla causes a sudden release of the stamens and the scatter- ing of a cloud of pollen over its body. 6. Lepidopterid flowers, visited chiefly by Lepidoptera, which are able to reach the nectar concealed in deep, narrow tubes or spurs by means of their long slender proboscis. Such are: (a) Butterfly-flowers, usually red in colour, as Dianthus carthusianorum; (b) Moth-flowers, white or whitish, as honeysuckle (Loniceta periclymenum). 7. Fly flowers, chiefly visited by Diptera, and including very different types: — a. Nauseous flowers, dull and yellowish and dark purple in colour and often spotted, with a smell attractive to carrion flies and dung flies, e.g. species of Saxifraga. b. Pitfall flowers such as Asarum, Aristolochia and Arum macu- latum, when the insect is caught and detained until pollination is effected (fig. 10). c. Pinch-trap flowers, as in the family Asclepiadaceae, where the proboscis, claw or bristle of the insect is caught in the clip to which the pairs of pollinia are attached. Bees, wasps and larger insects serve as pollinating agents FIG. 10. — Spadix of Arum maculatum from which the greater part of the spathe has been cut away. p, Pistillate, s, staminate flowers; h, sterile flowers form- ing a circlet of stiff hairs closing the mouth of the chamber formed by the lower part of the spathe. FIG. ii. — Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). Half nat. size, i, One of the scales which form the coronet in the flower, enlarged. d. Deceptive flowers such as Parnassia, where the conspicuous coronet of glistening yellow balls suggests a plentiful supply of nectar drops (fig. u). e. Hoverfly flowers, small flowers which are beautifully coloured with radiating streaks pointing to a sharply-defined centre in which is the nectar, as in Veronica chamaedrys (fig. 12). LITERATURE. — Joseph Gottlieb Kolreuter1 (d. 1806) was the first to study the pollination of flowers and to draw attention to the necessity of insect visits in many cases; he gave a clear account of cross-pollination by insect aid. He was followed by Christian Konrad Sprengel, whose work Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der Bejruchtung der Blumen (Berlin, 1733), contains a description of floral adaptations to insect visits in nearly 500 species of plants. Sprengel came very near to appreciating the meaning of cross-pollina- tion in the lite of plants when he states that " it seems that Nature is unwilling that any flower should be fertilized by its own pollen." In 1799 an Englishman. (From Vines's Tact Book of Thomas Andrew Knight, after experiments Botany- by t* on the cross-fertilization of cultivated FIG. 12. — Flower of plants, formulated the conclusion that no plant fertilizes itself through many genera- k. Calyx, tions. Sprengel's work, which had been u, u, u, The three lobes almost forgotten, was taken up again by of the lower lip of Charles Darwin, who concluded that no the rotate corolla, organic being can fertilize itself through o, The upper lip. an unlimited number of generations; but s, s, The two stamens, a cross with other individuals is occasion- n, The stigma. ally — perhaps at very long intervals — indis- pensable. Darwin's works on dimorphic flowers and the fertiliza- tion of orchids gave powerful support to this statement. The study of the fertilization, or as it is now generally called " pollina- tion," of flowers, was continued by Darwin and taken up by other workers, notably Friedrich Hildebrand, Federico Delpino and the brothers Fritz and Hermann Miiller. Hermann Muller's work on The Fertilization of Flowers by Insects and their Reciprocal Adapta- tions (1873), followed by subsequent works on the same lines, brought together a great number of observations on floral mechanisms and their relation to insect-visits. Miiller also suggested a modification of the Knight-Darwin law, which had left unexplained the numer- ous instances of continued successful self-pollination, and restated it on these terms: " Whenever offspring resulting from crossing comes into serious conflict with offspring resulting from self- fertilization, the former is victorious. Only where there is no such struggle for existence does self-fertilization often prove satis- factory for many generations." An increasing number of workers in this field of plant biology in England, on the Continent and in America has produced a great mass of observations, which have recently been brought together in Dr Paul Knuth's classic work, Handbook of Flower Pollination, an English translation of which has been published (1908) by the Clarendon Press. POLLIO, GAIUS ASINIUS (76 B.C.-A.D. 5; according to some, 75 B.C.-A.D. 4), Roman orator, poet and historian. In 54 he impeached unsuccessfully C. Porcius Cato, who in his tribunate (56) had acted as the tool of the triumvirs. In the civil war between Caesar and Pompey Pollio sided with Caesar, was present at the battle of Pharsalus (48), and commanded against Sextus Pompeius in Spain, where he was at the time of Caesar's assassination. He subsequently threw in his lot with M. Antonius. In the division of the provinces, Gaul fell to Antony, who entrusted Pollio with the administration of Gallia Trans- padana. In superintending the distribution of the Mantuan territory amongst the veterans, he used his influence to save from confiscation the property of the poet Virgil. In 40 he helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian (Augustus) and Antonius were for a time reconciled. In the same year Pollio entered upon his consulship, which had been promised him in 43. It was at this time that Virgil addressed the famous fourth eclogue to him. Next year Pollio conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people who adhered to Brutus, and celebrated a triumph on the 25th of October. The eighth eclogue of Virgil was addressed to Pollio while engaged in this campaign. From the spoils of the war he constructed the first public library at Rome, in the Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him (Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxv. 10), which he adorned with statues of the most celebrated 1 Vorlaufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen, 3, 4, 6 (Leipzig, 1761). POLLNITZ— POLL-TAX authors, both Greek and Roman. Thenceforward he withdrew from active life and devoted himself to literature. He seems to have maintained to a certain degree an attitude of independence, if not of opposition, towards Augustus. He died in his villa at Tusculum, regretted and esteemed by all. Pollio was a distinguished orator; his speeches showed ingenuity and care, but were marred by an affected archaism (Quintilian, Inst. x. I, 113; Seneca, Ep. loo). He wrote tragedies also, which Virgil (Ed. viii. id) declared to be worthy of Sophocles, and a prose history of the civil wars of his time from the first triumvirate (60) down to the death of Cicero (43) or later. This history, in the composition of which Pollio received assistance from the grammarian Ateius Praetextatus, was used as an authority by Plutarch and Appian (Horace, Odes, ii. I ; Tacitus, Annals, iv. 34). As a literary critic Pollio was very severe. He censured Sallust (Suetonius, Gram. 10) and Cicero (Quintilian, Inst. xii. I, 22) and professed to detect in Livy's style certain provincialisms of his native Padua (Quintilian, i. 5, 56, viii. I, 3); he attacked the Commentaries of Julius Caesar, accusing their author of carelessness and credulity, if not of deliberate falsification (Suet. Caesar, 56). Pollio was the first Roman author who recited his writings to an audience of his friends, a practice which afterwards became common at Rome. The theory that Pollio was the author of the Bellum africanum, one of the supplements to Caesar's Commentarii, has met with little support. All his writings are lost except a few fragments of his speeches (H. Meyer, Oral. rom. frag., 1842), and three letters addressed to Cicero (Ad. Fam. x. 31-33). See Plutarch, Caesar, Pompey; Veil. Pat. ii. 36, 63, 73, 76; Florus iv. 12, II; Dio Cassius xlv. 10, xlviii. 15; Appian, Bell, civ. ; V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891), i. ; P. Groebe, in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (1896), ii. pt. 2 ; Teuffel-Schwaben, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 221 ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, pt. 2, p. 20 (2nd ed., 1899); Cicero, Letters, ed. Tyrrell and Purser, vi. introd. p. 80. POLLNITZ, KARL LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1692-1775), German adventurer and writer, was born at Issum on the 25th of February 1692. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig von Pollnitz (d. 1693), was in the military service of the elector of Branden- burg, and much of his son's youth was passed at the electoral court in Berlin. He was a man of restless and adventurous disposition, unscrupulous even for the age in which he lived, visited many of the European courts, and served as a soldier in Austria, Italy and Spain. Returning to Berlin in 1735 he obtained a position in the household of King Frederick William I. and afterwards in that of Frederick the Great, with whom he appears to have been a great favourite; and he died in Berlin on the 23rd of June 1775. Pollnitz's Memoires (Lie'ge, 1734), which were translated into German (Frankfort, 1735), give interesting glimpses of his life and the people whom he met, but they are very untrustworthy. He also wrote Nouveaux memoires (Amsterdam, 1737); Etat abrege de la cour de Saxe sous le regne d'Auguste III. (Frankfort, 1734; Ger. trans., Breslau, 1736); and Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des guatres derniers souverains de la maison de Brandenbourg, published by F. L. Brunn (Berlin, 1791; Ger. trans., Berlin, 1791). Per- haps his most popular works are La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734), an account of the private life of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland; and Histoire secrete de la duchesse d'Hanovre, Spouse de Georges I. (London, 1732). There is an English translation of the Memoires (London, 1738—1739). See P. von Pollnitz, Stammtafeln der Familie von Pollnitz (Berlin, 1894); and J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, pt. iv. (Leipzig, 1870). POLLOCK, the name of an English family which has con- tributed many important members to the legal and other profes- sions. David Pollock, who was the son of a Scotsman and built up a prosperous business in London as a saddler, had three distin- guished sons: Sir David Pollock (1780-1847), chief justice of Bombay; Sir Jonathan Frederick Pollock, Bart. (1783-1870), chief baron of the exchequer; and Sir George Pollock, Bart. (1786-1872), field-marshal. Of these the more famous were the two last. Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, who rendered valuable military service in India, and especially in Afghanistan in 1841-1843, ended his days as constable of the Tower of London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his baronetcy, created in 1872, descended to his son Frederick (d. 1874), who assumed the name of Montagu- Pollock, and so to his heirs. Chief Baron Sir J. Frederick Pollock, who had been senior wrangler at Cam- bridge, and became F.R.S. in 1816, was raised to the bench in 1844, and created a baronet in 1866. He was twice married and had eight sons and ten daughters, his numerous descendants being prominent in many fields. The chief baron's eldest son, Sir William Frederick Pollock, 2nd Bart. (1815-1888), became a master of the Supreme Court (1846) and queen's remembrancer (1874); his eldest son, Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Bart. (b. 1845), being the well-known jurist and legal historian, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford (1883-1903), and the second son, Walter Herries Pollock (b. 1850), being a well-known author and editor of the Saturday Review from 1883 to 1894. The chief baron's third son, George Frederick Pollock (b. 1821), became a master of the Supreme Court in 1851, and succeeded his brother as queen's (king's) remembrancer in 1886; among his sons were Dr W. Rivers Pollock (1850-1909), Ernest Murry Pollock, K.C. (b. 1861), and the Rt. Rev. Bertram Pollock (b. 1863), bishop of Norwich, and previously head master of Wellington College from 1893 till 1910. The chief baron's fourth son, Sir Charles Edward Pollock (1823-1897), had a successful career at the bar and in 1873 became a judge, being the last survivor of the old barons of the exchequer; he was thrice married and had issue by each wife. POLLOK, ROBERT (1798-1827), Scottish poet, son of a small farmer, was born at North Moorhouse, Renfrewshire, on the igth of October 1798. He was trained as a cabinet-maker and after- wards worked on his father's farm, but, having prepared himself for the university, he took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for the ministry of the United Secession Church. He published Tales of the Covenanters while he was a divinity student, and planned and completed a strongly Calvinistic poem on the spiri- tual life and.destiny of man. This was the Course of Time (1827), which passed through many editions and became a favourite in serious households in Scotland. It was written in blank verse, in ten books, in the poetic diction of the i8th century, but with abundance of enthusiasm, impassioned elevation of feeling and copious force of words and images. The poem at once became popular, but within six months of its publication, on the i8th of September 1827, its author died of consumption. POLLOKSHAWS, a police burgh and burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, now virtually a suburb of Glasgow, with which it is connected by electric tramway and the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 11,183. It is named from the shows or woods (and is locally styled " the Shaws ") and the lands of Pollok, which have been held by the Maxwells since the i3th century. The family is now called Stirling-Maxwell, the estate and baronetcy having devolved in 1865 upon Sir William Stirling of Keir, who then assumed the surname of Maxwell. Pollok House adjoins the town on the west. The staple indus- tries are cotton-spinning and weaving, silk-weaving, dyeing, bleaching, calico-printing and the manufacture of chenille and tapestry, besides paper mills, potteries and large engineering works. Pollokshaws was created a burgh of barony in 1813, and is governed by a council and provost. About 2 m. south- west is the thriving town of Thornliebank (pop. 2452), which owes its existence to the cotton-works established towards the end of the i8th century. POLL-TAX, a tax levied on the individual, and not on property or on articles of merchandise, so-called from the old English poll, a head. Raised thus per capita, it is sometimes called a capitation tax. The most famous poll-tax in English history is the one levied in 1380, which led to the revolt of the peasants under Wat Tyler in 1381, but the first instance of the kind was in 1377, when a tax of a groat a head was voted by both clergy and laity. In 1379 the tax was again levied, but on a graduated scale. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, paid ten marks, and the scale descended from him to the peasants, who paid one groat each, every person over sixteen years of age being liable. In 1380 the tax was also graduated, but less steeply. For some years after the rising of 1381 money was only raised in this way from aliens, but in 1513 a general poll tax was imposed. This, however, only produced about £50,000, instead of £160,000 as was expected, but a poll-tax levied in 1641 resulted in a revenue of about £400,600. During the reign of POLLUX, JULIUS— POLO, MARCO Charles II. money was obtained in this way on several occasions, although in 1676-1677 especially there was a good deal of resentment against the tax. For some years after 1688 poll- taxes were a favourite means of raising money for the prosecution of the war with France. Sometimes a single payment was asked for the year; at other times quarterly payments were required. The poll-tax of 1697 included a weekly tax of one penny from all persons not receiving ahns. In 1698 a quarterly poll-tax produced £321,397. Nothing was required from the poor, and those who were liable may be divided roughly into three classes. Persons worth less than £300 paid one shilling; those worth £300, including the gentry and the professional classes, paid twenty shillings; while tradesmen and shopkeepers paid ten shillings. Non-jurors were charged double these rates. Like previous poll-taxes, the tax of 1698 did not produce as much as was anticipated, and it was the last of its kind in England. Many of the states of the United States of America raise money by levying poll-taxes, or, as they are usually called, capitation taxes, the payment of this tax being a necessary preliminary to the exercise of the suffrage. See S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England (1888), vol. iii. ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1896), vol. ii. POLLUX, JULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek grammarian and sophist of the 2nd century A.D. He taught at Athens, where, according to Philostratus (Vit. Soph.), he was appointed to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on account of his melodious voice. Suidas gives a list of his rhetorical works, none of which has survived. Philostratus recognizes his natural abilities, but speaks of his rhetoric in very moderate terms. Pollux is probably the person attacked by Lucian in the Lexiphanes and Teacher of Rhetoricians. In the Teacher of Rhetoricians Lucian satirizes a worthless and ignorant person who gains a reputation as an orator by sheer effrontery ; the Lexiphanes, a satire upon the use of obscure and obsolete words, may conceivably have been directed against Pollux as the author of the Onomasticon. This work, which we still possess, is a Greek dictionary in ten books, each dedicated to Commodus, and arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter. Though mainly a dictionary of synonyms and phrases, chiefly intended to furnish the reader with the Attic names for indi- vidual things, it supplies much rare and valuable information on many points of classical antiquity. It also contains numerous fragments of writers now lost. The chief authorities used were the lexicological works of Didymus, Tryphon, and Pamphilus; in the second book the extant treatise of Rufus of Ephesus On the Names of the Parts of the Human Body was specially consulted. The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf (1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846), containing the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are mono- graphs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional antiquities, 1875). POLLUX, or POLLUCITE, a rare mineral, consisting of hydrous caesium and aluminium silicate, H2Cs4AL((Si03)9. Caesium oxide (Cs2O) is present to the extent of 30-36 %, the amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by other alkalis, chiefly sodium. The mineral crystallizes in the cubic system. It is colourless and transparent, and has a vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage and the fracture is conchoidal. The hardness is 6| and the specific gravity 2-90. It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral " castor " (see PETALITE), in cavities in the granite of the island of Elba, and with beryl in pegmatite veins at Rumford and Hebron in Maine. POLO, CASPAR GIL (?i53O-iS9i), Spanish novelist and poet, was born at Valencia about 1530. He is often confused with Gil Polo, professor of Greek at Valencia University between 1566 and 1373; but this professor was not named Caspar. He is also confused with his own son, Caspar Gil Polo, the author of De origins et progressu juris romani (1615) and other legal treatises, who pleaded before the Cortes as late as 1626. A notary by profession, Polo was attached to the treasury commission which visited Valencia in 1571, became coadjutor to the chief accountant in 1572, went on a special mission to Barcelona in 1580, and died there in 1591. Timoneda, in the Sarao de amor (1561), alludes to him as a poet of repute; but of his miscellaneous verses only two conventional, eulogistic sonnets and a song survive. Polo finds a place in the history of the novel as the author of La Diana enamorada, a continuation of Monte- mayor's Diana, and perhaps the most successful continuation ever written by another hand. Cervantes, punning on the writer's name, recommended that " the Diana enamorada should be guarded as carefully as though it were by Apollo himself " ; the hyperbole is not wholly, nor even mainly, ironical. The book is one of the most agreeable of Spanish pastorals; interesting in incident, written in fluent prose, and embellished with melodious poems, it was constantly reprinted, was imitated by Cervantes in the Canto de Caliope, and was translated into English, French, German and Latin. The English version of Bartholomew Young, published in 1598 but current in manu- script fifteen years earlier, is said to have suggested the Felismena episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona; the Latin version of Caspar Barth, entitled Erotpdidascalus (Hanover, 1625), is a per- formance of uncommon merit as well as a bibliographical curiosity. POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324), the Venetian, greatest of medieval travellers. Venetian genealogies and traditions of uncertain value trace the Polo family to Sebenico in Dalmatia, and before the end of the nth century one Domenico Polo is found in the great council of the republic (1094). But the ascertained line of the traveller begins only with his grandfather. Andrea Polo of S. Felice was the father of three sons, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo, of whom the second was the father of the subject of this article. They were presumably " noble," i.e. belonging to the families who had seats in the great council, and were enrolled in the Libro d' Oro; for we know that Marco the traveller is officially so styled (nobilis vir). The three brothers were engaged in commerce; the elder Marco, resident apparently in Constantinople and in the Crimea (especially at Sudak), suggests, by his celebrated' will, a long business partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo. About 1260, and even perhaps as early as 1250, we find Nicolo and Maffeo at Constantinople. Nicolo was married and had left his wife there. The two brothers went on a speculation to the Crimea, whence a succession of chances and openings carried them to the court of Barka Khan at Sarai, further north up to Bolghar (Kazan), and eventually across the steppes to Bokhara. Here they fell in with certain envoys who had been on a mission from the great Khan Kublai to his brother Hulagu in Persia, and by them were persuaded to make the journey to Cathay in their company. Under the heading CHINA the circumstances are noticed which in the last half of the I3th century and first half of the I4th threw Asia open to Western travellers to a degree unknown before and since — until the igth century. Thus began the medieval period of intercourse between China and catholic Europe. Kublai, when the Polos reached his court, was either at Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, the Khan's city), i.e. Peking, which he had just rebuilt, or at his summer seat at Shangtu in the country north of the Great Wall. It was the first time that the khan, a man full of energy and intelligence, had fallen in with European gentlemen. He was delighted with the Venetian brothers, listened eagerly to all they had to tell of the Latin world, and decided to send them back as his envoys to the poperwrtirteUers requesting the despatch of a large body of educated men to instruct his people in Christianity and the liberal arts. With Kublai, as with his predecessors, religion was chiefly a political engine. Kublai, the first of his house to rise above the essential barbarism of the Mongols, had perhaps discerned that the Christian Church could afford the aid he desired in taming his countrymen. It was only when Rome had failed to meet his advance that he fell back upon Buddhism as his chief civilizing instrument. The brothers arrived at Acre in April 1269. They learned that Clement IV. had died the year before, and no new pope had yet been chosen. So they took counsel with an eminent church- man, Tedaldo, archdeacon of Liege and papal legate for the 8 POLO, MARCO whole realm of Egypt, and, being advised by him to wait patiently, went home to Venice, where they found that Nicole's wife was dead, but had left a son Marco, now fifteen. The papal in- terregnum was the longest that had been known, at least since the dark ages. After the Polos had spent two years at home there was still no pope, and the brothers resolved on starting again for the East, taking young Marco with them. At Acre they again saw Tedaldo, and were furnished by him with letters to authenticate the causes that had hindered their mission. They had not yet left Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas on the Cilician coast (then one of the chief points for the arrival and departure of the land trade of Asia), when they heard that Tedaldo had been elected pope. They hastened back to Acre, and at last were able to execute Kublai's mission, and to obtain a papal reply. But, instead of the hundred teachers asked for by the Great Khan, the new pope (styled Gregory X.) could supply but two Dominicans; and these lost heart and turned back, when they had barely taken the first step of their journey. The second start from Acre must have taken place about November 1271; and from a consideration of the indications and succession of chapters in Polo's book, it would seem that the party proceeded from Lajazzo to Sivas and Tabriz, and thence by Yezd and Kirman down to Hormuz (Hurmuz) at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by sea ; but that, abandoning their naval plans (perhaps from fear of the flimsy vessels employed on this navigation fronrthr^ttH east- wards), they returned northward through Persia. Traversing Kirman and Khorasan they went on to Balkh and Badakshan, in which last country young Marco recovered from illness. In a passage touching on the climate of the Badakshan hills, Marco breaks into an enthusiasm which he rarely betrays, but which is easily understood by those who have known what it is, with fever in the blood, to escape to the exhilarating mountain air and fragrant pine-groves. They then ascended the upper Oxus through Wakhan to the plateau of Pamir (a name first heard in Marco's book). These regions were hardly described again by any European traveller (save Benedict Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of Lieut. John Wood of the Indian navy, whose narrative abounds in incidental illustratio of Marco Polo. Crossing the Pamir the travellers descend upon Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan (Khutan). These are regions which remained almost absolutely closed to our know- ledge till after 1860, when the temporary overthrow of the Chinese power, and the enterprise of British, Russian and other explorers, again made them known. From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor, reached for the first time since Polo's journey by Prjevalsky in 1871. Thence the great desert of Gobi was crossed to Tangut, as the region at the extreme north-west of China, both within and without the Wall, was then called. In his account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he calls it, Polo gives some description of the terrors and superstitions of the waste, a description which strikingly reproduces that of the Chinese pilgrim Suan T'sang, in passing the same desert in the contrary direction six hundred years before. The Venetians, in their further journey, were met and welcomed by the Great Khan's people, and at last reached his presence at Shangtu, in the spring of 1275. Kublai received them with great cordiality, and took kindly to young Marco, by this time about twenty-one years old. The " young bachelor," as the book calls him, applied himself diligently to the acquisi- tion of the divers languages and written characters chiefly in use among the multifarious nationalities subject to the Khan; and Kublai, seeing that he was both clever and discreet, soon began to employ him in the public service. G. Pauthier found in the Chinese annals a record that in the year 1 277 a certain Polo was nominated as a second-class commissioner or agent attached to the imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the young Venetian. Among his public missions was one which carried him through the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and Szechuen, and the wild country on the borders of Tibet, to the remote province of Yunnan, called by the Mongols Karajang, and into northern Burma (Mien). Marco, during his stay at court, had observed the Khan's delight in hearing of strange countries, of their manners, marvels, and oddities, and had heard his frank expressions of disgust at the stupidity of envoys and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their official business. He took care to store his memory or his note-book with curious facts likely to interest Kublai, which, on his return to court, he related. This south-western journey led him through a country which till about 1860 was almost a terra incognita — though since the middle of the iQth century we have learned much regarding it through the journeys of Cooper, Gamier, Richthofen, Gill, Baber and others. In this region there existed and still exists in the deep valleys of the great rivers, and in the alpine regions which border them, a vast ethnological garden, as it were, of tribes of various origin, and in every stage of semi-civilization or barbarism; these afforded many strange products and eccentric traits to entertain Kublai. Marco rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on distant missions as well as in domestic administration; but we gather few details of his employment. He held for three years the government of the great city of Yangchow; on another occasion he seems to have visited Kangchow, the capital of Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps Karakorum on the north of the Gobi, the former residence of the Great Khans: again we find him in Ciampa, or southern Cochin-China; and perhaps, once more, on a separate mission to the southern states of India. We are not informed whether his father and uncle shared in such employments, though they are mentioned as having rendered material service to the Khan, in forwarding the capture of Siang-yang (on the Han river) during the war against southern China, by the construction of powerful artillery engines — a story, however, perplexed by chronological difficulties. All the Polos were gathering wealth which they longed to carry back to their home, and after their exile they began to dread what might follow Kublai's death. The Khan, however, was deaf to suggestions of departure and the opportunity only carneby chance. ' _^7 oqfl^-rsrghun, khan of Persia, the grandson of Kublai's brother eft. -Hulagu, lost in 1286 his favourite wife, called by Polo Balgana (i.e. Bulughan or " Sable "). Her dying injunction was that her place should be filled only by a lady of her own Mongol tribe. Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain such a bride. The message was courteously received, and the choice fell on the lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a maiden of seventeen. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then imperilled by war, so Arghun's envoys proposed to return by sea. Having made acquaintance with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially by that of Marco, who had just returned from a mission to the Indies, they begged the Khan to send the Franks in their company. He consented with reluctance, but fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, charging them with friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom, including the pope, and the kings of France, Spain and England. They sailed from Zaiton or Amoy Harbour in Fukien (a town corresponding either to the modern Changchow or less probably toTswanchoworChinchew),thenoneof the chief Chinese havens for foreign trade, in the beginning of 1292. The voyage in- volved long detention on the coast of Sumatra, and in south India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in Persia. Two of the three envoys and a vast proportion of their suite perished by the way; but the three Venetians survived all perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard. Arghun Khan had died even before they quitted China; his brother reigned in his stead; and his son Ghazan succeeded to the lady's hand. The Polos went on (apparently by Tabriz. Trebizond, Constantinople and Negro- pont) to Venice, which they seem to have reached about the end of 1295. The first biographer of Marco Polo was the famous geo- graphical collector John Baptist Ramusio, who wrote more than two centuries after the traveller's death. Facts and dates POLO, MARCO sometimes contradict his statements, but he often adds detail, evidently authentic, of great interest and value, and we need not hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his story of the Polos' arrival at their family mansion in St John Chrysostom parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured acknowledgment from Venetian society. We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity. Jealousies had been growing in bitterness between Venice and Genoa thioughout the I3th century. In 1298 the Genoese prepared to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful fleet under Lamba Doria made for the Adriatic. Venice, on hearing of the Genoese armament, equipped a fleet still more numerous, and placed it under Andrea Dandolo. The crew of a Venetian galley at this time amounted, all told, to 250 men, under a comito or master, but besides this officer each galley carried a sopracomito or gentleman-commander, usually a noble. On one of the galleys of Dandolo's fleet Marco Polo seems to have gone in this last capacity. The hostile fleets met before Curzola Island on the 6th of September, and engaged next morning. The battle ended in a complete victory for Genoa, the details of which may still be read on the facade of St Matthew's church in that city. Sixty-six Venetian galleys were burnt in Curzola Bay, and eighteen were carried to Genoa, with 7000 prisoners, one of whom was Marco Polo. The captivity was of less than a year's duration; by the mediation of Milan peace was made, on honourable terms for both republics, by July 1299; and Marco was probably restored to his family during that or the following month. But his captivity was memorable as the immediate cause of his Book. Up to this time he had doubtless often related his experiences among his friends; and from these stories, and the 'frequent employment in them (as it would seem) of grand numerical expressions, he had acquired the nickname of Marco Millioni. Yet it would seem that he had committed nothing to writing. The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of several other famous medieval travellers (e.g. Ibn Batuta, Friar Odoric, Nicolo Conti) seem to have been extorted from them by a kind of pressure, and committed to paper by other hands. Examples, perhaps, of that intense dislike to the use of pen and ink which still prevails among ordinary respectable folk on the shores of the Mediterranean. In the prison of Genoa Marco Polo fell in with a certain person of writing propensities, Rusticiano or Rustichello of Pisa, also a captive of the Genoese. His name is otherwise known as that of a respectable literary hack, who abridged and recast several of the French romances of the Arthurian cycle, then in fashion. He wrote down Marco's experiences at his dictation. We learn little of Marco Polo's personal or family history after this captivity; but we know that at his death he left a wife, Donata (perhaps of the Loredano family, but this is uncertain), and three daughters, Fantina and Bellela (married, the former to Marco Bragadino), and Moreta (then a spinster, but married at a later date to Ranuzzo Dolfino). One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from his will, now in St Mark's library. On the gth of January 1324 the traveller, in his seventieth year, sent for a neighbouring priest and notary to make his testament. We do not know the exact time of his death, but it fell almost certainly within the year 1324, for we know from a scanty series of documents, beginning in June 1325, that he had at the latter date been some time dead. He was buried, IrTaccordance with his will, in the Church of St Lorenzo, where the family burying-place was marked by a sarcophagus, erected by his filial care for his father Nicolo, which existed till near the end of the i6th century. On the renewal of the church" in 1592 this seems to have disappeared. The archives of Venice have yielded a few traces of our tra- veller. Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the wills of his uncle Marco and of his younger brother Maffeo; a few legal documents connected with the house property in St John Chrysostom, and other papers of similar character; and two or three entries in the record of the Maggior Con- siglio. We have mentioned the sobriquet of Marco Millioni. Ramusio tells us that he had himself noted the use of this name in the public books of the commonwealth, and this statement has been verified in an entry in the books of the Great Council (dated April 10, 1305), which records as one of the securities in a certain case the " Nobilis vir Marchus Paulo MILION." It is alleged that long after the traveller's death there was always in the Venetian masques one individual who assumed the character of Marco Millioni, and told Munchausen-like stories to divert the vulgar. There is also a record (March 9, 1311) of the judgment of the court of requests (Curia Peti- tionum) upon a suit brought by the " Nobilis vir Marcus Polo " against Paulo Girardo, who had been an agent of his, to recover the value of a certain quantity of musk for which Girardo had not accounted. Another document is a catalogue of certain curiosities and valuables which were collected in the house of Marino Faliero, and this catalogue comprises several objects that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family. The most tangible record of Polo's memory in Venice is a portion of the Ca' Polo — the mansion (there is reason to believe) where the three travellers, after their long absence, were denied entrance. The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio's time as the Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera. That which remains of the ancient edifice is a passage with a decorated archway of Italo-Byzantine character pertaining to the I3th century. No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists. There is a medallion portrait on the wall of the Sala dello Scudo in the ducal palace, which has become a kind of type; but it is a work of imagination no older than 1761. The oldest professed portrait is one in the gallery of Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus Polus venetus lolius orbis et Indie peregrator primus. It is a good picture, but evidently of the i6th century at earliest. The Europeans at Canton have absurdly attached the name of Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist temple there containing a gallery of " Arhans " or Buddhist saints, and popularly known as the " temple of the five hundred gods." The Venetian municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the geographical congress at Venice in 1881. The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts. The first, or prologue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only part which con- sists of actual personal narrative. It relates in an interesting though extremely brief fashion the circumstances which led the two elder Polos to the Khan's court, together with those of their second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return to the west by the Indian seas and Persia. The second and staple part consists of a series of chapters of unequal length and unsystem- atic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of Asia (certain African islands and regions included), with occasional notices of their sights and products, of curious manners and re- markable events, and especially regarding the Emperor Kublai, his court, wars and administration. A series of chapters near __ the close treats of sundry wars that took place between various'' branches of the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the I3th century. This last series is either omitted or greatly curtailed in all the MS. copies and versions except one (Paris, National Library, Fonds Fr. 1116). It was long doubtful in what language the work was originally written. That this had been some dialect of Italian was a natural presumption, and a contemporary statement could be alleged in its favour. But there is now no doubt that the original was French. This was first indicated by Count Baldelli-Boni, who published an elaborate edition of two of the Italian texts at Florence in 1827, and who found in the oldest of these indisputable signs that it was a translation from the French. The argument has since been followed up by others; and a manuscript in rude and peculiar French, belonging to the National Library of Paris (Fonds Fr. 1116), which was printed by the Socifti de gto^raphie in 1824, is evidently either the original or a close transcript of the original dictation. A variety of its characteristics are strikingly indicative of the unrevised product of dictation, and are such as would necessarily have disappeared either in a translation or in a revised copy. Many illustrations could be adduced of the fact that the use of French was not a circumstance of surprising or unusual nature; for the language had at that time, in some points of view, even a wider diffusion than at present, and examples of its literary em- ployment by writers who were not Frenchmen (like Rusticiano himself, a compiler of French romances) are very numerous. IO POLO, MARCO Eighty-five MSS. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit considerable differences. These fall under four principal types. Of these, type i. is found completely only in that old French codex which has been mentioned (Paris, National Library, Fr. 1116). Type ii. is shown by several valuable MSS. in purer French (Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; Bern, Canton Library, 125), which formed the basis of the edition prepared by the late M. Pauthier in 1865. It exhibits a text condensed and revised from the rude original, but without any exactness, though perhaps under some general direction by Marco Polo himself, for an inscrip- tion prefixed to certain MSS. (Bern, Canton Libr. 125; Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 5649) records the presentation of a copy by the tra- veller himself to the Seigneur Thiebault de C6poy, a distinguished Frenchman known to history, at Venice in the year 1306. Type iii. is that of a Latin version prepared in Marco Polo's lifetime, though without any sign of his cognisance, by Francesco Pipino, a Dominican of Bologna, and translated from an Italian copy. In this, condensation and curtailment are carried a good deal further than in type ii. Some of the forms under which this type appears curiously illustrate the effects of absence of effective publication, not only before the invention of the press, but in its early days. Thus the Latin version published by Grynaeus at Basel in the Novus Orbis (1532) is different in its language from Pipino's, and yet is clearly traceable to that as its foundation. In fact it is a retranslation into Latin from some version of Pipino (Marsden thinks the Portuguese printed one of 1502). It introduces changes of its own, and is worthless as a text; yet Andreas Miiller, who in the 1 7th century took so much trouble with Polo, unfortunately chose as his text this fifth-hand version. The French editions published in the middle of the i6th century were translations from Grynaeus's Latin. Hence they complete this curious and vicious circle of transmission — -French, Italian, Pipino's Latin, Portuguese, Grynaeus's Latin, French. Type iv. deviates largely from those already mentioned; its history and true character are involved in obscurity. It is only represented by the Italian version prepared for the press by John Baptist Ramusio, with interesting preliminary dissertations, and published at Venice two years after his death, in the second volume of the Navigation* e viaggi. Its peculiarities are great. Ramusio seems to imply that he made some use of Pipino's Latin, and various passages confirm this. But many new circumstances, and anec- dotes occurring in no other copy, are introduced; many names assume a new shape; the whole style is more copious and literary than that of any other version. While a few of the changes and interpolations seem to carry us farther from the truth, others contain facts of Asiatic nature or history, as well as of Polo's alleged experiences, which it is difficult to ascribe to any hand but the traveller's own. We recognize to a certain extent tampering with the text, as in cases where Polo's proper names have been identified, and more modern forms substituted. In some other cases the editorial spirit has gone astray. Thus the age of young Marco has been altered to correspond with a date which is itself erroneous. Ormuz is described as an island, contrary to the old texts, and to the fact in Polo's time. In speaking of the oil-springs of Caucasus the phrase " camel-loads " has been substituted for " ship-loads," in ignorance that the site was Baku on the Caspian. But, on the other hand, there are a number of new circumstances certainly genuine, which can hardly be ascribed to any one but Polo himself. Such is the account which Ramusio's version gives of the oppressions exercised by Kublai's Mahommedan minister Ahmad, telling how the Cathayans rose against him and murdered him, with the addition that Messer Marco was on the spot when all this happened. Not only is the whole story in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals, even to the name of the chief conspirator (Vanchu in Ramusio, Wangcheu in the Chinese records), but the annals also tell of the frankness of " Polo, assessor of the privy council," in opening Kublai's eyes to the iniquities of his agent. Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom which he had seen ; the first to speak of the new and brilliant court which had been established at Peking; the first to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma, of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin-China, of Japan, of Java, of Sumatra and of other islands of the archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of India but as a country seen and partially explored; the first in medieval times to give any distinct account of the secluded Christian Empire of Abyssinia, and of the semi-Christian island of Sokotra, and to speak, however dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears and reindeer- riding Tunguses. The diffusion of the book was hardly so rapid as has been some- times alleged. We know from Gilles Mallet's catalogue of the books collected in the Louvre by Charles V., dating c. 1370^1375, that five copies of Marco Polo's work were then in the collection ; but on the other hand, the 202 known MSS. and the numerous early printed editions of " Mandeville," with his lying wonders, indicates a much greater popularity. Dante, who lived twenty-three years after the book was dictated, and who touches so many things in the seen and unseen worlds, never alludes to Polo, nor, we believe, to any- thing that can be connected with him; nor can any trace of Polo be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo the Elder, though this worthy is well acquainted with the work, later by some years, of Haytpn the Armenian, and though many of the subjects on which he writes in his own book (Secrela Fidelium Crucis1) challenge a reference to Polo's experiences. " Mande- ville " himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders Polo (see one example in Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 323, note). The only literary works we know of the I4th century which show acquaintance with Polo's book or achievements are Pipino's Chronicle, Villani's Florentine History, Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator, the Chronicle of John of Ypres, and the poetical romance of Baudouin de Sebourc, which last borrows themes largely from Polo. Within the traveller's own lifetime we find the earliest examples of the practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolani), based upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants, &c. In two of the most famous of the I4th century Portolani, we trace Marco Polo's influence — first, very slightly in the Laurentian or Medicean Portolano of 1351 (at Florence), but afterwards with clearness and in remarkable detail in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (now at Paris). Both of these represent a very advanced stage of medieval knowledge, a careful attempt to represent the known world on the basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo- scientific theory; in the Catalan Atlas, as regards Central and Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo's Book is the basis of the map. His names are often much perverted, and it is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took of his itineraries. Still we have Cathay placed in the true position of China, as a great empire filling the south-east of Asia. The trans-Gangetic peninsula is absent, but that of India proper is, for the first time in the history of geography, represented with a fair approximation to correct form and position. It is curious that, in the following age, owing partly to his un- happy reversion to the fancy of a circular disk, the map of Fra Mauro (1459), one of the greatest map-making enterprises in history, and the result of immense labour in the collection of facts and the endeavour to combine them, gives a much less accurate idea of Asia than the Carta catalana. Columbus possessed a printed copy of the Latin version of Polo's book made by Pipino, and on more than seventy pages of this there are manuscript notes in the admiral's handwriting, testifying, what is sufficiently evident from the whole history of the Columbian voyages, to the immense in- fluence of the work of the Venetian merchant upon the discoverer of the new world. When, in the i6th century, attempts were made to combine new and old knowledge, the results were unhappy. The earliest of such combinations tried to realize Columbus's ideas regarding the identity of his discoveries with the Great Khan's dominions; but even after America had vindicated its independent existence, and the new knowledge of the Portuguese had named China where the Catalan map had spoken of Cathay, the latter country, with the whole of Polo's nomenclature, was shunted to the north, forming a separate system. Henceforward the influence of Polo's work on maps was simply injurious; and when to his names was added a sprinkling of Ptolemy's, as was usual throughout the i6th century, the result was a hotchpotch conveying no approximation to facts (see further MAP). As to the alleged introduction of important inventions into Europe by Polo — although the striking resemblance of early Euro- pean block-books to those of China seems clearly to indicate the derivation of the art from that country, there is no reason for connecting this introduction (any more than that of gunpowder or the mariner's compass) with the name of Marco. In the I4th century not only were missions of the Roman Church established in some of the chief cities of eastern China, but a regular overland trade was carried on between Italy and China, by way of Tana (Azov), Astrakhan, Otrar, Kamul (Hami) and Kanchow. Many a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the block-books, and some might have witnessed the process of making them. This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously omits to speak of the process of printing, when, in describing the block-printed paper-money of China, his subject seems absolutely to challenge a description of the art. See the Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i., giving the text of the fundamental MS. (Nat. Libr. Paris, Fr. 1116; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version; G. Pauthier's edition, Livre . . . de Marco Polo . . . (Paris, 1865), based mainly upon the three Paris MSS. (Nat. Libr. Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary of great value; Baldelli-Boni's Italian edition, giving the oldest Italian version (Florence, 1827); Sir Henry Yule's edition, which in its final shape, as revised and augmented by Henri Cordier (. . . Marco Polo . . . London, 1903), is the most complete 1 Printed by Bongars in the collection called Gesla Dei per Francos (1611), ii. 1-281. POLO ii storehouse of Polo learning in existence, embodying the labours of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of such works as those of Major P. Molesworth Sykes (Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, &c.) so far as these touch Marco Polo; the Archimandrite Palladius Katharov's " Elucidations of Marco Polo " (from vol. x. of the Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp. 1-54; F. von Richthofen, Letters to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E. C. Baber, Travels . . . in Western China; G. Phillips, Identity of . . . Zailun with Chang- chau in T'oung Poo (Oct. 1890), and other studies in T'oung-Pao (Dec. 1895 and July 1896). There are in all 10 French editions of Polo as well as 4 Latin editions, 27 Italian, 9 German, 4 Spanish, i Portuguese, 12 English, 2 Russian, I Dutch, I Bohemian (Chekh), I Danish and I Swedish. See also E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, i. 239, 167; ii. 8, 71, 81-84, 184; Leon Cahun, Introduction a Vhistoire de I'Asie, 339, 386; C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 15-160, 545-547. 554, 556-563. (H. Y!; C. R. B.) POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball), the most ancient of games with stick and ball. Hockey, the Irish national game of hurling (and possibly golf and cricket) are derived from polo. History. Tjje jatter was caued hockey or hurling on horse- back in England and Ireland respectively, but historically hockey and hurling are polo on foot. The earliest records of polo are Persian. From Persia the game spread westward to Constantinople, eastwards through Turkestan to Tibet, China and Japan. From Tibet polo travelled to Gilgit and Chitral, possibly also to Manipur. Polo also flourished in India in the i6th century. Then for 200 years its records in India cease, till in 1854 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by way of Cachar and in 1862 the game was played in the Punjab. There have been twelve varieties of the game during its existence of at least 2000 years, (i) A primitive form consisting of feats of horsemanship and of skill with stick and ball. (2) Early Persian, described in Shahnama, a highly organized game with rules, played four aside. (3) Later Persian, i6th century, the grounds 300 by 1 70 yds. Sir Anthony Shirley says the game resembled the rough football of the same period in England. (4) The game in the lyth century in Persia. A more highly organized game than No. 3, as described by Chardin. (5) The Byzantine form played at Constantinople in the i2th century. A leathern ball the size of an apple and a racquet were used. (6) The Chinese game, about A.D. 600 played with a light wooden ball. The goal was formed by . two posts with a boarding between, in the latter a hole being cut and a net attached to it in the form of a bag. The side which hit the ball into the bag were the winners. Another Chinese form was two teams ranged on opposite sides of the ground, each defending its own goal. The object of the game was to drive the ball through the enemy's goal. (7) The Japanese game, popular in feudal times, still survives under the name of Dakiu, or ball match. The Japanese game has a boarded goal; 5 ft. from the ground is a circular hole i ft. 2 in. in diameter with a bag behind. The balls are of paper with a cover of pebbles or bamboo fibre, diameter 1-7 in., weight ij oz. The sticks are racket shaped. The object is to lift over or carry the ball with the racket and place it in the bag. (8) Called rol, played with a long stick with which the ball was dribbled along the ground. (9) Another ancient Indian form in which the sides ranged up on opposite sides of the ground and the ball was thrown in. This is probably the form of the game which reached India from Persia and is represented at the present day by Manipur and Gilgit polo, though these forms are probably rougher than the old Indian game. (10) Modern English with heavy ball and sticks, played in England and the colonies and wherever polo is played in Europe. Its characteristics are: offside; severe penalties for breach of the rules; close combination; rather short passing; low scoring, and a strong defence, (ii) Indian polo has a lighter ball, no boards to the grounds, which are usually full-sized; a modified offside-rule, but the same system of penalties. It is a quicker game than the English. (12) The American game has no offside and no penalties, in the English sense. The attack is stronger, the passing longer, the pace greater and more sustained. American players are more certain goal-hitters and their scoring is higher. They defeated the English players in 1909 with ease. Polo was first played in England by the loth Hussars in 1869. The game spread rapidly and some good play was seen at Lillie Bridge. But the organization of polo in England dates from its adoption by the Hurlingham Club in 1873. The ground was boarded along the sides, and this device, which was employed as a remedy for the irregular shape of the Hurlingham ground, has become almost universal and has greatly affected the develop- ment of the game. The club committee, in 1874, drew up the first code of rules, which reduced the number of players to five a side and included offside. The next step was the foundation 9f the Champion Cup, in 1877. Then came the rule dividing the game into periods of ten minutes, with intervals of two minutes for changing ponies after each period, and five minutes at half- time. The height of ponies was fixed at 14-2, and a little later an official measurer was appointed, no pony being allowed to play unless registered at Hurlingham. The next change was the present scale of penalties for offside, foul riding or dangerous play. A short time after, the crooking of the adversary's stick, unless in the act of hitting the ball, was forbidden. The game grew faster, partly as the result of these rules. Then the ten minutes' rule was revised. The period did not close until the ball went over the boundary. Thus the period might be ex- tended to twelve or thirteen minutes, and although this time was deducted from the next period the strain of the extra minutes was too great on men and ponies. It was therefore laid down that the ball should go out of play on going out of bounds or striking the board, whichever happened first. In 1910 a polo handicap was established, based on the American system of estimating the number of goals a player was worth to his side. This was modified in the English handicap by assigning to each player a handicap number as at golf. The highest number is ten, the lowest one. The Hurlingham handicap is revised during the winter, again in May, June and July, each handicap coming into force one month after the date of issue. In tournaments under handicap the individual handicap numbers are added together, and the team with the higher aggregate concedes goals to that with the lower, according to the con- ditions of the tournament. The handicap serves to divide second from first class tournaments, for the former teams must not have an aggregate over 25. The size of the polo ground is 300 yds. in length and from 1 60 to 200 yds. in width. The larger size is only found now where boards are not used. The ball is made of willow root, is 3J in. in diameter, weight not over s| oz. The polo stick has no standard size or weight, and square or cigar-shaped heads are used at the discretion of the player. On soft grounds, the former, on hard grounds the latter are the better, but Indian and American players nearly always prefer the cigar shape. The goal posts, now generally made of papier mache, are 8 yds. apart. This is the goal line. Thirty yards from the goal line a line is marked out, nearer than which to the goal no one of a fouled side may be when the side fouling has to hit out, as a penalty from behind the back line, which is the goal line produced. At 50 yds. from each goal there is generally a mark to guide the man who takes a free hit as a penalty. Penalties are awarded by the umpires, who should be two in number, well mounted, and with a good knowledge of the rules of the game. The Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs appoint official umpires. There should also be a referee in case of disagreement between the umpires, and it is usual to have a man with a flag behind each goal to signal when a goal is scored. The Hurlingham club makes and revises the rules of the game, and its code is, with some local modifications, in force in the United Kingdom, English-speaking colonies, the Argentine Republic, California, and throughout Europe. America and India are governed by their own polo associations. . The American rules have no offside, and their penalties consist of subtracting a goal or the fraction of a goal, according to the offence, from the side which has incurred a penalty for fouling. The differences between the Hurlingham and Indian rules 12 POLONAISE— POLONNARUWA are very slight, and they tend to assimilate more as time goes on. Polo in the army is governed by an army polo committee, which fixes the date of the inter-regimental tournament. The semi-finals and finals are played at Hurlingham. The earlier ties take place at centres arranged by the army polo committee, who are charged by the military authorities with the duty of checking the expenditure of officers on the game. The value of polo as a military exercise is now fully recognized, and with the co-operation of Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton the expenses of inter-regimental tournaments have been regulated and restrained. The County Polo Association has affiliated to it all the county clubs. It is a powerful body, arranging the conditions of county tournaments, constructing the handicaps for county players, and in conjunction with the Ranelagh club holding a polo week for county players in London. The London clubs are three — Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton. Except that they use Hurlingham rules the clubs are independent, and arrange the con- ditions and fix the dates of their own tournaments. Ranelagh has four, Roehampton three and Hurlingham two polo grounds. There are about 400 matches played at these clubs, besides members' games from May to July during the London season. At present the Meadowbrook still hold the cup which was won inter- by an English team in 1886. In 1902 an American national team made an attempt to recover it and failed. Polo. They lacked ponies and combination; but they bought the first and learned the second, and tried again successfully in 1909, thus depriving English polo of the championship of the world. Polo in England has passed through several stages. It was always a game of skill. The cavalry regiments in India in early The Game. P°'° days, the 5th, 9th, 1 2th and i7th Lancers, the loth Hussars and the i3th Hussars, had all learned the value of combination. In very early days regimental players had learned the value of the backhanded stroke, placing the ball so as to give opportunities to their own side. The duty of support- ing the other members of the team and riding off opponents so as to clear the way for players on the same side was understood. This combination was made easier when the teams were reduced from five a side to four. Great stress was laid on each man keeping his place, but a more flexible style of play existed from early days in the I7th Lancers and was improved and perfected at the Rugby Club by the late Colonel Gordon Renton and Captain E. D. Miller, who had belonged to that regiment. For a long time the Rugby style of play, with its close combination, short passes and steady defence, was the model on which other teams formed themselves. The secret of the success of Rugby was the close and unselfish combination and the hard work done by every member of the team. After the American victories of 1909 a bolder, harder hitting style was adopted, and the work of the forwards became more important, and longer passes are now the rule. But the main principles are the same. The forwards lead the attack and are supported by the half-back and back when playing towards the adversaries' goal. In defence the forwards hamper the opposing No. 3 and No. 4 and endeavour to clear the way for their own No. 3 and No. 4, who are trying not merely to keep the ball out of their own goal but to turn defence into attack. Each individual player must be a good horseman, able to make a pony gallop, must have a control of the ball, hitting hard and clean and in the direction he wishes it to go. He must keep his eye on the ball and yet know where the goal-posts are, must be careful not to incur penalties and quick to take advantage of an opportunity. Polo gives no time for second thoughts. A polo player must not be in a hurry, but he must never be slow nor dwell on his stroke. He must be able to hit when galloping his best pace on to the ball and able to use the speed of his pony in order to get pace. He must be able to hit a backhander or to meet a ball coming to him, as the tactics of the game require. Polo has given rise to a new type of horse, an animal of 14 hands 2 in. with the power of a hunter, the courage of a racehorse and the docility of a pony. At first the ponies were small, but now each pony must pass the Hurlingham official measurer and be entered on the register. The English The Polo system of measurement is the fairest and most Pony. humane possible. The pony stripped of his clothing is led by an attendant, not his own groom, into a box with a perfectly level floor and shut off from every distraction. A veterinary surgeon examines to see that the pony is neither drugged nor in any way improperly prepared. The pony is allowed to stand easily, and a measuring standard with a spirit-level is then placed on the highest point of the wither, and if the pony measures 14-2 and is five years old it is i cgistered for life. Ponies are of many breeds. There are Arabs, Argentines, Americans, Irish and English ponies, the last two being the best. The Polo and Riding Pony Society, with headquarters at 12 Hanover Square, looks after the interests of the English and Irish pony and encourages their breeders. The English ponies are now bred largely for the game and are a blend of thoroughbred blood (the best are always the race-winning strains) or Arab and of the English native pony. AUTHORITIES. — Polo in England: J. Moray Brown, Riding and Polo, Badminton Library, revised and brought up to date by T. F. Dale (Longmans, 1899) ; Captain Younghusband, Polo in India, (n.d.); J. Moray Brown, Polo (Vinton, 1896); T. F. Dale, The Came of Polo (A. Constable & Co., 1897); Captain Younghusband, Tourna- ment Polo (1897); Captain de Lisle, Durham Light Infantry, Hints to Polo Players in India (1897); T. B. Drybrough, Polo (Vinton, 1898; revised, Longmans, 1906); Captain E. D. Miller, Modern Polo (1903); H. L. Fitzpatrick, Equestrian Polo, in Spalding's Athletic Library (1904) ; Major G. J. Younghusband, Tournament Polo (1904); T. F. Dale " Polo, Past and Present," Country Life; Walter Buckmaster, " Hints on Polo Combination," Library of Sport (George Newnes Ltd., 1905 ; Vinton & Co., 1909) ; Hurlingham Club, Rules of Polo, Register of Ponies; Polo and Riding Pony Society Stud Book (12 vols., 12 Hanover Square). A nnuals: American Polo Association, 143 Liberty Street, New York; Indian Polo Association, Lucknow, N. P.; Captain E. D. Miller, D.S.O., The Polo Players' Guide and Almanack; The Polo Annual, ed. by L. V. L. Simmonds. Monthlies: Bailey's Magazine (Vinton & Co.); The Polo Monthly (Craven House, Kingsway, London). Polo in Persia: Firdousi's Shahnama, translated as Le Livre des rois by J. Mohl, with notes and comm. ; Sir Anthony Shirley, Travels in Persia (1569); Sir John Chardin, Voyages en Perse (1686), ed. aug. de notes, &c. par L. Langles, 181 1 ; Sir William Ouseley, Travels in Various Countries of the East, particularly Persia (1810). There are many allusions to polo in the poets, notably Nizami, . Jam! and Omar Khayyam. Polo in Constantinople; Cinnamus Joannes epitome rerum ab loanne et Alexio Commenis gest. (Bonn, 1836). Polo in India: Ain-i-Akbari (1555); G. F. Vigne, Travels in Kashmir (Ladakh and Iskardo, 1842); Colonel Algernon Durand, The Making of a Frontier (1899). Polo in digit and Chitral: " Polo in Baltistan." The Field (1888); Polo in Manipur, Captain McCulloch, Manipuris and the Adjacent Tribes (1859). (T. F. D.) POLONAISE (i.e. Polish, in French), a stately ceremonious dance, usually written in J time. As a form of musical com- position it has been employed by such ccmposers as Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in cere- monial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately music. This procession of music became the regular opening ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance. The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has been fashionable for ladies at different periods. POLONNARUWA, a ruined city and ancient capital of Ceylon. It first became a royal residence in A.D. 368, when the lake of Topawewa was formed, and succeeded Anuradhapura as the capital in the middle of the 8th century. The principal ruins date chiefly from the time of Prakrama Bahu (A.D. 1153- ii 86). The most imposing pile remaining is the Jetawa- narama temple, a building 170 ft. in length, with walls about 80 ft. high and 12 ft. thick. The city is now entirely deserted, and, as in the case of Anuradhapura, its ruins have only recently been rescued from the jungle. POLOTSK— POLTAVA POLOTSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, at the confluence of the Polota with the Dvina, 62 m. by rail N.W. of the town of Vitebsk. Pop. 20,751. Owing to the continuous wars, of which, from its position on the line of communication between central Russia and the west it was for many centuries the scene, scarcely any of its remarkable anti- quities remain. The upper castle, which stood at the confluence of the rivers and had a stone wall with seven towers, is in ruins, as is the lower castle formerly enclosed with strong walls and connected with the upper castle by a bridge. The cathedral of St Sophia in the upper castle, built in the I2th century, fell to ruins in the i8th century, whereupon the United Greek bishop substituted a modern structure. Upwards of two-thirds of the inhabitants are Jews; the remainder have belonged mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church since 1839, when they were compelled to abandon the United Greek Church. Flax, linseed, corn and timber are the leading articles of commerce. Polotesk or Poltesk is mentioned in 862 as one of the towns given by the Scandinavian Rurik to his men. In 980 it had a prince of its own, Ragvald (Rogvolod or Rognvald), whose daughter is the subject of many legends. It remained an independent principality until the I2th century, resisting the repeated attacks of the princes of Kiev; those of Pskov, Lithu- ania, and the Livonian tCnights, however, proved more effective, and Polotsk fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320. About 1385 its independence was destroyed by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt. It was five times besieged by Moscow in 1500-18, and was taken by Ivan the Terrible in 1563. Recaptured by Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, sixteen years later, it became Polish by the treaty of 1582. It was then a large and populous city, and carried on an active commerce. Pestilences and conflagrations were its ruin; the plague of 1566 wrought great havoc among its inhabitants, and that of 1600 destroyed 15,000. The castles, the town and its walls were burned in 1607 and 1642. The Russians continued their attacks, burning and plundering the town, and twice, in 1633 and 1705, taking possession of it for a few years. It was not definitely annexed, however, to Russia until 1772, after the first dismemberment of Poland. In 1812 its inhabitants resisted the French invasion, and the town was partially destroyed. POLTAVA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by the government of Chernigov on the N., Kharkov on the E., Ekaterinoslav and Kherson on the S., and Kiev on the W., and having an area of 19,260 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain 500 to 600 ft. above sea-level, with a few elevations reach- ing 670 ft. in the north, and gently sloping to 300 and 400 ft. in the south-west. Owing to the deep excavations of the rivers, their banks, especially those on the right, have the aspect of hilly tracts, while low plains stretch to the left. Almost the whole of the surface consists of Tertiary deposits; Cretaceous rocks appear in the north-east, at the bottom of the deeper ravines. The government touches the granitic region of the Dnieper only in the south, below Kremenchug. Limestone with dolerite veins occurs in the isolated hill of Isachek, which rises above the marshes of the Sula. The whole is covered with a layer, 20 to 60 ft. thick, of boulder clay, which again is often mantled with a thick sheet of loess. Sandstone (sometimes suitable for grindstones) and limestone are quarried, and a few beds of gypsum and peat-bog are known within the government. With the exception of some sandy tracts, the soil is on the whole very fertile. Poltava is drained by the Dnieper, which flows along its border, navigable throughout, and by its tributaries the Sula, Psiol, Vorskla, Orel, Trubezh, and several others, none of them navigable, although their courses vary from 150 to 270 m. each in length. Even those which used to be navigated within the historical period, such as the Trubezh and Supoi, are now drying up, while the others are being partially trans- formed into marshes. Deep sand-beds intersected by number- less ravines and old arms of the river stretch along the left bank of the Dnieper, where accordingly the settlements are few. Only 5% of the total area is under forest; timber, wooden wares, and pitch are imported. The estimated population in 1906 was 3,312,400. The great majority are Little Russians. Agriculture is the principal pursuit, 60% of the total area being arable land. The crops chiefly grown are wheat, rye and oats; the sunflower is largely cultivated, especially for oil, and the growing of tobacco, always important, has made a great advance. Kitchen gardening, the cultivation of the plum, and the preparation of preserved fruits are important branches of industry. At Lubny, where an apothecaries' garden is maintained by the Crown, the col- lection and cultivation of medicinal plants are a speciality. The main source of wealth in Poltava always has been, and still is, its live-stock breeding — horses, cattle, sheep, pigs. Some of the wealthier landowners and many peasants rear finer breeds of horses. The land is chiefly owned by the peasants, who possess 52% of the cultivable area; 42% belongs to private persons, and the remainder to the Crown, the clergy, and the municipalities. Among the manufactures distilleries hold the leading place, after which come flour-mills, tobacco factories, machine-making, tanneries, saw-mills, sugar-works and woollen manufactures. In the villages and towns several domestic trades are carried on, such as the preparation of sheepskins, plain woollen cloth, leather, boots and pottery. The fair of Poltava is of great importance for the whole woollen trade of Russia, and leather, cattle, horses, coarse woollen cloth, skins, and various domestic wares are exchanged for manufactures imported from Great Russia. The value of merchandise brought to the fair averages over £2,500,000. Several other fairs, the aggregate returns for which reach more than one-half of the above, are held at Romny (tobacco), Kremenchug '(timber, corn, tallow and salt), and Kobelyaki (sheepskins). Corn is exported to a considerable extent to the west and to Odessa, as also saltpetre, spirits, wool, tallow, skins and woollen cloth. The Dnieper is the principal artery for the exports and for the import — timber. The chief river-ports are Kremenchug and Poltava. Steamers ply between Kiev and Ekaterinoslav; but the navigation is hampered by want of water and becomes active only in the south. Traffic mostly follows the railway. Poltava is divided into fifteen districts, of which the chief towns are Poltava, Gadyach, Khorol, Kobelyaki, Konstantinograd, Kremenchug, Lokhvitsa, Lubny, Mirgorod, Pereyaslavl, Piryatin, Priluki, Romny, Zenkov and Zolotonosha. History. — At the dawn of Russian history the region now occupied by Poltava was inhabited by the Slav tribe of the Syeveryanes. As early as 988 the Russians erected several towns on the Sula and the Trubezh for their protection against the Turkish Petchenegs and Polovtsi, who held the south- eastern steppes. Population extended, and the towns of Pereyaslavl, Lubny, Priluki, Piryatin, Romny, begin to be mentioned in the nth and i2th centuries. The Mongol invasion of 1230-42 destroyed most of them, and for two centuries afterwards they disappear from Russian annals. About 1331 Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, annexed the so-called " Syeversk towns " and on the recognition of the union of Lithuania with Poland they were included in the united kingdom along with the remainder of Little Russia. In 1476 a separate principality of Kiev under Polish rule and Polish institutions was formed out of Little Russia, and remained so until the rising of the Cossack chief Bogdan Chmielnicki in 1654. By the Andrussowo Treaty, the left bank of the Dnieper being ceded to Russia, Poltava became part of the dominions of the Zaporogian Cossacks, and was divided into " regiments," six of which (Poltava, Pereyaslavl, Priluki, Gadyach, Lubny and Mirgorod) lay within the limits of the present government. They lost their independence in 1764. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) POLTAVA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Vorskla, 88 m. by rail W.S.W. of Kharkov. Pop. 53,060. The town is built on a plateau which descends by steep slopes on nearly every side. Several suburbs, inhabited by Cossacks, whose houses are buried amid gardens, and a German colony, surround the town. The oldest buildings are a monastery, erected in 1650, and a wooden POLTERGEIST church visited by Peter the Great after the battle of Poltava. There are a military school for cadets, a theological seminary and two girls' colleges; also flour-mills, tobacco works and a tannery. Poltava is mentioned in Russian annals in 1174, under the name of Ltava, but does not again appear in history until 1430, when, together with Glinsk, it was given by Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, to the Tatar prince Leksada. Under the Cossack chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki, it was the chief town of the Poltava " regiment." Peter the Great of Russia defeated Charles XII. of Sweden in the immediate neighbourhood on the 27th of June 1709, and the victory is commemorated by a column over 50 ft. in height. POLTERGEIST (Ger. for " racketing spirit "), the term applied to certain phenomena of an unexplained nature, such as movements of objects without any traceable cause, and noises equally untraced to their source; but in some 'cases exhibiting intelligence, as when raps answer a question by a code. In the word Poltergeist, the phenomena are attributed to the action of a Geist, or spirit : of old the popular explanation of all residuary phenomena. The hypothesis, in consequence of the diffusion of education, has been superseded by that of "electricity"; while sceptics in all ages and countries have accounted for all the phenomena by the theory of imposture. The last is at least a tier a causa: imposture has often been detected; but it is not so certain that this theory accounts for all the circumstances. To the student of human nature the most interesting point in the character of poltergeist phenomena is their appearance in the earliest known stages of culture, their wide diffusion, and their astonishing uniformity. Almost all the beliefs usually styled " superstitious " are of early occurrence and of wide diffusion: the lowest savages believe in ghosts of the dead and in wraiths of the living. Such beliefs when found thriving in our own civilization might be explained as mere survivals from savagery, memories of all " The superstitions idle-headed eld Received and did deliver to our age." But we have not to deal only with a belief that certain apparently impossible things may occur and have occurred in the past. We are met by the evidence of sane and credible witnesses, often highly educated, who maintain that they themselves have heard and beheld the unexplained sounds and sights. It appears, therefore, that in considering the phenomena of the poltergeist we are engaged with facts of one sort or another; facts produced either by skilled imposture, or resting on hallucinations of the witnesses; or on a mixture of fraud and of hallucination caused by " suggestion." There remains the chance that some agency of an unexplored nature is, at least in certain cases, actually at work. A volume would be needed if we were to attempt to chronicle the phenomena of the poltergeist as believed in by savages and in ancient and medieval times. But among savages they are usually associated with the dead, or with the medicine-men of the tribes. These personages are professional " mediums," and like the mediums of Europe and America, may be said to have do- mesticated the poltergeist. At their seances, savage or civilized, the phenomena are reported to occur — such as rappings and other noises, loud or low, and " movements of objects without physical contact." (See, for a brief account, A. Lang, Cock Lane and Common Sense, " Savage Spiritualism "; and see the Jesuit Lettres edifiantes, North America, 1620-1770, and Kohl's Kitchi Garni.) But ;< induced phenomena," where professional mediums and professional medical men are the agents, need not here be considered. The evidence, unless in the case of Sir William Crookes's experiments with Daniel Dunglas Home, is generally worthless, and the laborious investigations of the Society for Psychical Research resulted only in the detection of fraud as far as " physical " manifestations by paid mediums were concerned. The spontaneous poltergeist, where, at least, no professional is present, and no stance is being held, is much more curious and interesting than the simple tricks played in the dark by impudent charlatans. The phenomena are identical, as reported, literally "from China to Peru.". The Cieza de Leon (1549) tells us that the cacique of Pirza, in Popyan, during his conversion to Christianity, was troubled by stones falling mysteriously through the air (the mysterious point was the question of whence they came, and what force urged them), while Chris- tians saw at his table a glass of liquor raised in the air, by no visible hand, put down empty, and replenished! Mr Dennys (Folk Lore of China, 1876, p. 79) speaks of a Chinese householder who was driven to take refuge in a temple by the usual phenomena — throwing about of crockery and sounds of heavy footfalls — after the decease of an aggrieved monkey. This is only one of several Chinese cases of poltergeist; and the phenomena are described in Jesuit narratives of the i8th century, from Cochin China. In these papers no explanation is suggested. There is a famous example in a nunnery, recorded (1528) by a notable witness, Adrien de Montalembert, almoner to Francis I. The agent was supposed to be the spirit of a sister recently deceased. Among multitudes of old cases, that of the " Drummer of Tedworth " (1662-1663; see Glanvil, Sadducismus triumphatus, 1666); that at Rerrick, recorded by the Rev. Mr Telfer in 1695; that of the Wesley household (1716-1717) chronicled in contemporary letters and diaries of the Wesley family (Southey's Life of John Wesley); tha£ of Cideville (1851), from the records of the court which tried the law-suit arising out of the affair (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xviii. 454-463); and the Alresford case, attested by the great admiral, Lord St Vincent, are among the most remarkable. At Tedworth we have the evidence of Glanvil himself, though it does not amount to much; at Rerrick, Telfer was a good chronicler and gives most respectable signed vouchers for all the marvels: Samuel Wesley and his wife were people of sense, they were neither alarmed nor superstitious, merely puzzled; while the court which tried the Cideville case, only decided that " the cause of the events remains unknown." At Alresford, in Hampshire, the phenomena attested by Lord St Vincent and his sister Mrs Ricketts, who occupied the house, were pecu- liarly strange and emphatic: the house was therefore pulled down. At Willington Mill, near Morpeth (1831-1847), the phenomena are attested by the journal of Mr Procter, the occupant, a Quaker, a " tee-totaller," and a man of great resolution. He and his family endured unspeakable things for sixteen years, and could find no explanation of the sights and sounds, among which were phantasms of animals, as at Epworth, in the Wesley case. Of all these cases that of the Wesleys has attracted most critical attention. It was not, in itself, an extreme instance of poltergeist: at Alresford, at the close of the i8th century, and at Willington Mill in the middle of the igth the disturbances were much more violent and persistent than at Epworth, while our evidence is, in all three examples, derived from the contem- porary narratives, letters and journals of educated persons. The Wesleys, however, were people so celebrated and so active in religion that many efforts have been made to explain their " old Jeffrey," as they called the disturbing agency. These attempts at explanation have been fruitless. The poet Coleridge, who said that he knew many cases, explained all by a theory of contagious epidemic hallucination of witnesses. Dr Salmon, of Trinity College, Dublin, set all down to imposture by Hetty Wesley, a vivacious girl (Fortnightly Review, 1866). The documents on which he relied, when closely studied, did not support his charges, for he made several important errors in dates, and on these his argument rested. F. Podmore, in several works (e.g. Studies in Psychical Research), adopted a theory of exaggerative memory in the narrators, as one element, with a dose of imposture and of hallucination begotten of excited expectation. The Wesley letters and journals, written from day to day, do not permit of exaggerative memory, and when the records of 1716-1717 are compared with the remini- scences collected from his family by John Wesley in 1726, the discrepancies are seen to be only such as occur in all human POLTERGEIST evidence about any sort of events, remote by nine or ten years. Thus, in 1726, Mrs Wesley mentioned a visionary badger seen by her. She did not write about it to her son Samuel in 1717, but her husband and her daughter did then describe it to Samuel, as an experience of his mother at that date. The whole family, in 1717, became familiar with the phenomena, and were tired of them and of Samuel's questions. (Mr Podmore's arguments are to be found in the Journal of the Studies of Psychical Research, ix. 40-45. Some dates are mis- printed.) The theory of hallucination cannot account for the uniformity of statements, in many countries and at many dates, to the effect that the objects mysteriously set in motion moved in soft curves and swerves, or " wobbled." Suppose that an adroit impostor is throwing them, suppose that the spectators are excited, why should their excitement every- where produce a uniform hallucination as to the mode of motion? It is better to confess ignorance, and remain in doubt, than to invent such theories. A modern instance may be analysed, as the evidence was given contemporaneously with the events (Podmore, Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xii. 45-58: " Poltergeists ")• On the 2oth or 2ist of February 1883 a Mrs White, in a cottage at Worksop, was " washing up the tea-things at the table," with two of her children in the room, when " the table tilted up at a considerable angle," to her amazement. On the 26th of February, Mr White being from home, Mrs White extended hospitality to a girl, Eliza Rose, " the child of an imbecile mother." Eliza is later described as " half-witted," but no proof of this is given. On the ist of March, White being from home, at about 11.30 p.m. a number of things " which had been in the kitchen a few minutes before " came tumbling down the kitchen stairs. Only Mrs White and Eliza Rose were then in the kitchen. Later some hot coals made an invasion. On the following night, White being at home in the kitchen, with his wife and Eliza, a miscellaneous throng of objects came in, Mr White made vain research upstairs, where was his brother Tom. On his return to the kitchen " a little china woman left the mantelpiece and flew into the corner." Being replaced, it repeated its flight, and was broken. White sent his brother to fetch a doctor; there also came a policeman, named Higgs; and the doctor and policeman saw, among other things, a basin and cream jug rise up automatically, fall on the floor and break. Next morning, a clock which had been silent for eighteen months struck; a crash was heard, and the clock was found to have leapt over a bed and fallen on the floor. All day many things kept flying about and breaking themselves, and Mr White sent Miss Rose about her business. Peace ensued. Mr Podmore, who visited the scene on the 7th and 8th of April and collected depositions, says (writing in 1883): "It may be stated generally that there was no possibility, in most cases, of the objects having been thrown by hand. . . . More- over it is hard to conceive by what mechanical appliances, under the circumstances described, the movements could have been effected. ... To suppose that these various objects were all moved by mechanical contrivances argues incredible stupidity, amounting almost to imbecility, on the part of all the persons present who were not in the plot," whereas Higgs, Dr Lloyd and a miner named Curass, all " certainly not wanting in intelligence," examined the objects and could find no explana- tion. White attested that fresh invasions of the kitchen by inanimate objects occurred as Eliza was picking up the earlier arrivals; and he saw a salt-cellar fly from the table while Eliza was in another part of the room. The amount of things broken was valued by White at £9. No one was in the room when the clock struck and fell. Higgs saw White shut the cupboard doors, they instantly burst open, and a large glass jar flew into the yard and broke. " The jar could not go in a straight line from the cupboard out of the door; but it certainly did go " (Higgs). The depositions were signed by the witnesses (April 1883). In 1896, Mr Podmore, after thirteen years of experience in examining reports of the poltergeist, produced his explana- tions, (i) The witnesses, though " honest and fairly intelli- gent," were " imperfectly educated, not skilled in accurate observation of any kind." (They described, like many others, in many lands, the " wobbling " movement of objects in flight.) (2) Mr Podmore took the evidence five weeks after date; there was time for exaggerated memories. (Mr Podmore did not consult, it seems, the contemporary evidence of Higgs in the Retford and Gainsborough Times, oth of March 1883. On examination it proves to tally as precisely as possible with the testimonies which he gave to Mr Podmore, except that in March he mentioned one or two miracles which he omitted five weeks later! The evidence is pubh'shed in Lang's The Making oj Religion, 1898, p. 356.) (3) In the evidence given to Mr Podmore five weeks after date, there are discrepancies between Higgs and White as to the sequence of some events, and as to whether one Coulter was present when the clock fell: he asserts, Higgs and White deny it . (There is never evidence of several witnesses, five weeks after an event, without such discrepancies. If there were, the evidence would be suspected as " cooked." Higgs in April gave the same version as in March.) (4) As there are discrepancies, the statements that Eliza was not always present at the abnormal occurrences may be erroneous. " It is perhaps not unreasonable to conjecture that Eliza Rose herself, as the instrument of mysterious agencies, or simply as a half- witted girl gifted with abnormal cunning and love of mischief, may have been directly responsible for all that took place." (How, if, as we have seen, the theory of mechanical appliances is abandoned, " under the circumstances described " ? We need to assume that all the circumstances are wrongly described. Yet events did occur, the breakages were lamentable, and we ask how could the most half-witted of girls damage so much property undetected, under the eyes of the owner, a policeman, a medical practitioner and others ? How could she throw things from above into the room where she was picking up the things as they arrived? Or is that a misdescription ? No evidence of Eliza's half-wittedness and abnormal cunning is adduced. If we call her "the instrument of mysterious agencies," the name of these agencies is — poltergeist! No later attempt to find and examine the abnormal girl is recorded.) The explanations are not ideally satisfactory, out they are the result, in Mr Podmore's mind, of examination of several later cases of poltergeist.1 In one a girl, carefully observed, was detected throwing things, and evidence that the phenomena occurred, in her absence, at another place and time, is discounted. In several other cases, exaggerations of memory, malobservation and trickery combined, are the explanations, and the conclu- sion is that there is " strong ground " for believing in trickery as the true explanation of all these eleven cases, including the Worksop affair. Mr Podmore asserts that, at Worksop, " the witnesses did not give their testimony until some weeks after the event." That is an erroneous statement as far as Higgs goes, the result apparently of malobservation of the local news- paper. More or less of the evidence was printed in the week when the events occurred. Something more than unconscious exaggeration, or malobservation, seems needed to explain the amazing statements made by Mr Newman, a gamekeeper of Lord Portman, on the 23rd of January 1895, at Durmeston in another case. Among other things, he said that on the i8th of December 1894, a boot flew out of a door. " I went and put my foot on the boot and said ' I defy anything to move- this boot.' Just as I stepped off, it rose up behind me and knocked my hat off. There was nobody behind me." Gamekeepers are acute observers, and if the narrative be untrue, malobservation or defect of memory does not explain the fact. In this case, at Durmeston, the rector, Mr Anderson, gave an account of 1 The present writer criticized Mr Podmore's explanation in The Making of Religion. Mr Podmore replied (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xiv. 133, 136), pointing out an error in the critic's presentation of his meaning. He, in turn, said that the writer ' champions the supernormal interpretation," which is not exact, as the writer has no theory on the subject, though he is not satisfied that " a naughty little girl " is a uniformly successful solution of the poltergeist problem. i6 POLTERGEIST some of the minor phenomena. He could not explain them, and gave the best character to the Nonconformist mother of the child with whom the events were associated. No trickery was discovered. The phenomena are frequently connected with a person, often a child, suffering from nervous malady or recent nervous shock. No such person appears in the Alresford, Willington, Epworth and Tedworth cases, and it is not stated that Eliza Rose at Worksop was subjected to a medical examination. In a curious case, given by Mrs Crewe, in The Night Side of Nature, the young person was the daughter of a Captain Molesworth. Her own health was bad, and she had been depressed by the death of a sister. Captain Molesworth occupied a semi-detached villa at Trinity, near Edinburgh; his landlord lived next door. The phenomena set in: the captain bored holes in the wall to discover a cause in trickery, and his landlord brought a suit against him in the sheriff's court at Edinburgh. The papers are preserved, but the writer found that to discover them would be a herculean labour. He saw, how- ever, a number of documents in the office of a firm of solicitors employed in the case. They proved the fact of the lawsuit but threw no other light on the matter. We often find that the phenomena occur after a nervous shock to the person who may be called the medium. The shock is frequently consequent on a threat from a supposed witch or wizard. This was the case at Cideville in 1850-1851. (See an abstract of the documents of the trial, Proceedings S.P.R. xviii. 454-463. The entire report was sent to the writer.) In 1901 there was a case at Great Grimsby; the usual flying of stones and other objects occurred. The woman of the house had been threatened by a witch, after that the poltergeist developed. No explanation was forthcoming. In Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 320 the Rev. Mr Deanley gives a curious parallel case with detection of imposture. In Miss O'Neal's Devonshire Idylls is an excellent account of the phenomena which occurred after a Devonshire girl of the best character, well known to Miss O'Neal, had been threatened by a witch. In the famous instance of Christian Shaw of Bargarran (1697) the child had been thrice formally cursed by a woman, who prayed to God that her soul " might be hurled through hell." Christian fell into a state which puzzled the medical faculty (especially when she floated in the air), and doubtless she herself caused, in an hysterical state, many phenomena which, however, were not precisely poltergeistish. A very marked set of phenomena, in the way of movements of objects, recently occurred in the Hudson Bay territory, after a half-breed girl had received a nervous shock from a flash of lightning that struck near her. Heavy weights automatically " tobogganed," as Red Indian spectators said, and there were the usual rappings in tent and wigwam. If we accept trickery as the sufficient explanation, the uniformity of tricks played by hysterical patients is very singular. Still more singular is a long series, continued through several years, of the same occurrences where no hysterical patient is known to exist. In a very curious example, a carpenter's shop being the scene, there was concerned nobody of an hysterical temperament, no young boy or girl, and there was no explanation (Proc. S.P.R. vii- 383-394). The events went on during six weeks. An excellent case of hysterical fraud by a girl in France is given by Dr Grasset, professor of clinical medicine at Montpellier (Proc. S.P.R. xviii. 464-480). But in this instance, though things were found in unusual places, nobody over eight years old saw them flying about ; yet all concerned were deeply superstitious. On the whole, while fraud, especially hysterical fraud, is a vera causa in some cases of poltergeist, it is not certain that the explanation fits all cases, and it is certain that detection of fraud has often been falsely asserted, as at Tedworth and Willington. No good chronic case, as at Alresford, Epworth, Spraiton (Bovet's Pandaemon ium) , Willington, and in other classical instances, has been for months sedulously observed by sceptics. In short-lived cases, as at Worksop, science appears on the scene long enough after date to make the theory of exaggeration of memory plausible. If we ask science to explain how the more remarkable occurrences could be produced by a girl ex hypothese half-witted, the reply is that the occurrences never occurred, they were only " described as occurring " by untrained observers with " patent double magnifying " memo- ries; and with a capacity for being hallucinated in a uniform way all the world over. Yet great quantities of crockery and furniture were broken, before the eyes of observers, in a house near Ballarmina, in North Ireland, in January 1907. The experiment of exhibiting a girl who can break all the crockery without being detected, in the presence of a doctor and a policeman, and who can, at the same time, induce the spectators to believe that the flying objects waver, swerve and " wobble," has not been attempted. An obvious difficulty in the search for" authentic information is the circumstance that the poor and imperfectly educated are much more numerous than the well-to-do and well educated. It is therefore certain that most of the disturbances will occur in the houses of the poor and ill educated, and that their evidence will be rejected as insufficient. When an excellent case occurs in a palace, and is reported by the margravine of Bayreuth, sister of Frederick the Great, in her Memoirs, the objection is that her narrative was written long after the events. When we have contemporary journals and letters, or sworn evidence, as in the affairs of Sir Philip Francis, Cideville and Willington, criticism can probably find some other good reasons for setting these testimonies aside. It is certain that the royal, the rich and the well-educated observers tell, in many cases, precisely the same sort of stories about poltergeist phenomena as do the poor and the imperfectly instructed. On the theory that there exist " mysterious agencies " which now and then produce the phenomena, we may ask what these agencies can possibly be? But no answer worthy of considera- tion has ever been given to this question. The usual reply is that some unknown but intelligent force is disengaged from the personality of the apparent medium. This apparent medium need not be present; he or she may be far away. The High- landers attribute many poltergeist phenomena, inexplicable noises, sounds of viewless feet that pass, and so forth, to taradh, an influence exerted unconsciously by unduly strong wishes on the part of a person at a distance. The phrase falbh air farsaing (" going uncontrolled ") is also used (Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Scottish Highlands, 1902, pp. 144-147). The present writer is well acquainted with cases attributed to taradh, in a house where he has often been a guest. They excite no alarm, their cause being well understood. We may call this kind of thing telethoryby, a racket produced from a distance. A very marked case in Illinois would have been attributed in the Highlands to the taradh of the late owner of the house, a dipsomaniac in another state. On his death the disturbances ceased (first-hand evidence from the disturbed lady of the house, May 1907). It may be worth while to note that the phenomena are often regarded as death-warnings by popular belief. The early incidents at the Wesleys' house were thought to indicate the death of a kinsman; or to announce the approach- ing decease of Mr Wesley pere, who at first saw and heard nothing unusual. At Worksop the doctor was called in, because the phenomena were guessed to be " warnings " of the death of a sick child of the house. The writer has first-hand evidence from a lady and her son (afterwards a priest) of very singular movements of untouched objects in their presence, which did coincide with the death of a relation at a distance. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature of the subject is profuse, but scattered. For modern instances the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research may be consulted, especially an essay by F. W. H. Myers, vii. 146-198, also iy. 29-38; with the essay by Podmore, already quoted. Books like Dale Owen's Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World, and Fresnoy's Recueil des dis- sertations sur les apparitions, are stronger in the quantity of anec- dotes than in the quality of evidence. A. Lang's Book of Dreams and Ghosts, contains outlandish and Celtic examples, and Telfair's (Telfer's) A True Relation of an Apparition (1694-1696) shows un- usual regard for securing signed evidence. Kiesewetter's Geschichte des neueren Occultismus and Graham Dalyell's Darker Super- stitions of Scotland, with any collections of trials for witchcraft POLTROON— POLYANTHUS may be consulted, and Bovet's Pandaemonium (1684) is very rich in cases. The literature of the famous drummer of Tedworth (March i662-April 1663) begins with an abstract of the sworn deposition of Mr Mompesson, whose house was the scene of the dis- turbances. The abstract is in the Mercurius publicus of April 1663, the evidence was given in a court of justice on the isth of April. There is also a, ballad, a rhymed news-sheet of 1662 (Anthony \\< « nl's Collection 401 (193). Bodleian Library). Pepys mentions " books " about the affair in his Diary for June 1663. Glanvil's first known version is in his Sadductsmus triumphatus of 1666. Tin- sworn evidence of Mompesson proves at least that he was disturbed in an intolerable manner, certainly beyond any means at the disposal of his two daughters, aged nine and eleven or there- abouts. The agent may have been the taradh of the drummer whom Mompesson offended. Glanvil in 1666 confused the dates, and, save for his own experiences, merely repeats the statements current in 1662-1663. The ballad and Mompesson's deposition iveu in Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 304—336, in a discussion between tin- writer and Mr Podmore. The dated and contemporary narrative of Procter in the Willington Mill case (1835- 1847), is printed in the Journ. S.P.R. (Dec. 1892), with some conu-mporary letters on the subject. Mr Procter endured the disturbances for sixteen years before he retreated from the place. There was no naughty little girl in the affair; no nervous or hysterical patient. The Celtic hypothesis of idradh, exercised by " the spirit of the living," includes visual apparitions, and many a sd-called " ghost " of the dead may be merely the taradh of a living person. (A. L.) POLTROON, a coward, a worthless rogue without courage or spirit. The word comes through Fr. poltron from Ital. poltrone, an idle fellow, one who lolls in a bed or couch (Milanese palter, Venetian poltrona, adapted from Ger. Polster, a pillow; cf. English " bolster"). The old guess that it was from Lat. pollice truncus, maimed in the thumb, and was first applied to those who avoided military service by self-mutilation, gave rise probably to the French application of poltron to a falcon whose talons were cut to prevent its attacking game. POLTROT, JEAN DE (c. 1537-1561.), sieur de Mere or Merey, a nobleman of Angoumois, who murdered Francis, duke of Guise. He had lived some time in Spain, and his knowledge of Spanish, together with his swarthy complexion, which earned him the nickname of the " Espagnolet," procured him employment as a spy in the wars against Spain. Becoming a fanatical Huguenot, he determined to kill the duke of Guise, and gained admission as a deserter to the camp of the Catholics who were besieging Orleans. In the evening of the i8th of February 1563 he hid by the side of a road along which he knew the duke would pass, fired a pistol at him, and fled. But he was captured the next day, and was tried, tortured several times, and sentenced to be drawn and quartered. On the i8th of March 1563 he underwent a frightful punishment. The horses not being able to drag off his limbs, he was hacked to pieces with cutlasses. He had made several contradictory declarations regarding the complicity of Coligny. The admiral protested emphatically against the accusation, which appears to have had no foundation. See Memoires du prince de Conde (London, 1 743) ; T. A. D'Aubign<5, Histoire universelle (ed. by de Ruble, Soc. de I'histoire de France, 1886) ; A. de Ruble, L'Assassinat du due Francois de Lorraine (Paris, 1897). POLYAENUS, a Macedonian, who lived at Rome as a rhetori- cian and pleader in the 2nd century A.D. When the Parthian War (162-5) broke out, Polyaenus, too old to share in the campaign, dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus a work, still extant, called Stratcgica or Strategemata, a historical collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek and strung together in the form of anecdotes. It is not strictly confined to warlike stratagems, but includes also examples of wisdom, courage and cunning drawn from civil and political life. The work is uncritically written, but is nevertheless important on account of the extracts it has preserved from histories now lost. It is divided into eight books (parts of the sixth and seventh are lost), and originally contained nine hundred anecdotes, of which eight hundred and thirty-three are extant. Polyaenus intended to write a history of the Parthian War, but there is no evidence that he did so. His works on Macedonia, on Thebes, and on tactics (perhaps identical with the Strategical are lost. His Strategica seems to have been highly esteemed by the Roman emperors, and to have been handed down by them as a sort of heirloom. From Rome it passed to Constantinople; at the end of the gth century it was diligently studied by Leo VI., who himself wrote a work on tactics; and in the middle of the loth century Constantino Porphyrogenitus mentioned it as one of the most valuable books in the imperial library. It was used by Stobaeus, Suidas, and the anonymous author of the work n«pt iirlaTiaii (see PALAEPHATUS). It is arranged as follows: bks. i., ii., iii., strata- gems occurring in Greek history; bk. iv., stratagems of the Mace- donian kings and successors of Alexander the Great; bk. v., strata- gems occurring in the history of Sicily and the Greek islands and colonies; bk. vi., stratagems of a whole people (Carthaginians, Lacedaemonians, Argives), together with some individuals (Philopoemen, Pyrrhus, Hannibal); bk. vii., stratagems of the barbarians (Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians, Celts); bk. viii., stratagems of Romans- and women. This dis- tribution is not, however, observed very strictly. Of the negligence or haste with which the work was written there are many instances : e.g. he confounds Dionysius the elder and Dionysius the younger, Mithradates satrap of Artaxerxes and Mithradates the Great, Scipio the elder and Scipio the younger, Perseus, king of Macedonia and Perseus the companion of Alexander; he mixes up the strata- gems of Caesar and Pompey; he brings into immediate connexion events which were totally distinct; he narrates some events twice over, with variations according to the different authors from whom he draws. Though he usually abridges, he occasionally amplifies arbitrarily the narratives of his authorities. He never mentions his authorities, but amongst authors still extant he used Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Frontinus and Suetonius; amongst authors cf whom only fragments now remain he drew upon Ctesias, Ephorus, Timaeus, Phylarchus and Nicolaus Damascenus. His style is clear, but monotonous and inelegant. In the forms of his words he generally follows Attic usage. The best edition of the text is Wolfflin and Melber (Teubner Series, 1887, with bibliography and editio princeps of the Strate- eemata of the emperor Leo) ; annotated editions by Isaac Casaubon (1589) and A. Coraes (1809); I. Melber, Ueber die Quellen tind Werth der Strategemensammlung Polydns (1885); Knott, De fide et fontibus Polyaeni (1883), who largely reduces the number of the authorities consulted by Polyaenus. Eng. trans, by R. Shepherd (1793)- 'POLYANDRY (Gr. iroXtis, many, and &VTIP, man), the system of marriage between one woman and several men, who are her husbands exclusively (see FAMILY). The custom locally legal- izing the marriage of one woman to more than one husband at a time has been variously accounted for as the result of poverty and of life in unfertile lands, where it was essential to check popula- tion as the consequence of female infanticide, or, in the opinion of J. F. McLennan and L. H. Morgan, as a natural phase through which human progress has necessarily passed. Polyandry is to be carefully differentiated from communal marriage, where the woman is the property of any and every member of the tribe. Two distinct kinds of polyandry are practised: one, often called Nair, in which, as among the Nairs of India, the husbands are not related to each other; and the second, the Tibetan or fraternal polyandry, in which the woman is married to all the brothers of one family. Polyandry is practised by the tribes of Tibet, Kashmir and the Himalayan regions, by the Todas, Koorgs, Nairs and other peoples of India, in Ceylon, New Zealand, by some of the Australian aborigines, in parts of Africa, in the Aleutian archipelago, among the Koryaks and on the Orinoco. See McLennan's Primitive Marriage (London, 1885); Studies in Ancient History (London, 1886); "The Levirate and Polyandry," in The Fortnightly Review, new series, vol. xxi. (London, 1877); L. H. Moigan, System of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, 1869); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilization; E. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage. POLYANTHUS, one of the oldest of the florists' flowers, is probably derived from P. variabilis, itself a cross between the common primrose and the cowslip; it differs from the primrose in having the umbels of flowers carried up on a stalk. The florists' polyanthus has a golden margin, and is known as the gold-laced polyanthus, the properties being very distinctly laid down and rigidly adhered to. The chief of these are a clear, unshaded, blackish or reddish ground colour, an even margin or lacing of yellow extending round each segment and cutting through its centre down to the ground colour, and a yellow band surrounding the tube of exactly the same hue as the yellow of the lacing. The plants are quite hardy, and grow best in strong, loamy soil tolerably well enriched with well-decayed dung and leaf -mould ; i8 POLYBIUS they should be planted about the end of September or not later than October. Plants for exhibition present a much better and cleaner appearance if kept during winter in a cold well-aired frame. For the flower borders what are called fancy polyanthuses are adopted. These are best raised annually from seed, the young crop each year blooming in succession. The seed should be sown as soon as ripe, the young plants being allowed to stand through the winter in the seed bed. In April or May they are planted out in a bed of rich garden soil, and they will bloom abundantly the following spring. A few of the better " thrum- eyed " sorts (those having the anthers in the eye, and the pistil sunk in the tube) should be allowed to ripen seed; the rest may be thrown away. In some remarkable forms which have been cultivated for centuries the ordinarily green calyx has become petaloid; when this is complete it forms the hose-in-hose prim- rose of gardeners. There are also a few well-known double- flowered varieties. POLYBIUS (c. 204-122 B.C.), Greek historian, was a native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, the youngest of Greek cities (Paus. viii. 9), which, however, played an honourable part in the last days of Greek freedom as a stanch member of the Achaean League (?.».). His father, Lycortas, was the intimate friend of Philopoemen, and on the death of the latter, in 182, succeeded him as leader of the league. The date of Polybius's birth is doubtful. He tells us himself that in 181 he had not yet reached the age (? thirty years, Polyb. xxix. 9) at which an Achaean was legally capable of holding office (xxiv. 6). We learn from Cicero (Ad Fam. v. .12) that he outlived the Numantine War, which ended [in 132, and from Lucian (Macrob. 22) that he died at the age of eighty-two. The majority of authorities therefore place his birth between 214 and 204 B.C. Little is known of his early life. As the son of Lycortas he was naturally brought into close contact with the leading men 'of the Achaean League. With Philopoemen he seems to have been on intimate terms. After Philopoemen's tragic death in Messenia (182) he was entrusted with the honour- able duty of conveying home the urn in which his ashes had been deposited (Plut. Phil. 21). In 181, together with his father, Lycortas and the younger Aratus, he was appointed, in spite of his youth, a member of the embassy which was to visit Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, a mission, however, which the sudden death of Ptolemy brought to a premature end (xxv. 7). The next twelve years of his life are a blank, but in 169 he reappears as a trusted adviser of the Achaeans at a difficult crisis in the history of the League. In 1 7 1 war had broken out between Rome and the Macedonian king Perseus, and the Achaean statesmen were divided as to the policy to be pursued; there were good reasons for fearing that the Roman senate would regard neu- trality as indicating a secret leaning towards Macedon. Polybius therefore declared for an open alliance with Rome, and his views were adopted. It was decided to send an Achaean force to co- operate with the Roman general, and Polybius was selected to command the cavalry. The Roman consul declined the proffered assistance, but Poiybius accompanied him throughout the campaign, and thus gained his first insight into the military system of Rome. In the next year (168) both Lycortas and Polybius were on the point of starting at the head of 1200 Achaeans to take service in Egypt against the Syrians, when an intimation from the Roman commander that armed inter- ference was undesirable put a stop to the expedition (xxix. 23). The success of Rome in the war with Perseus was now assured. The final victory was rapidly followed by the arrival in Achaea of Roman commissioners charged with the duty of establishing Roman interests there. Polybius was arrested with 1000 of the principal Achaeans, but, while his companions were con- demned to a tedious incarceration in the country towns of Italy, he obtained permission to reside in Rome. This privilege he owed to the influence of L. Aemilius Paullus and his two sons, Scipio and Fabius (xxxii. 9). Polybius was received into Aemi- lius's house, and became the instructor of his sons. Between Scipio (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus the younger), the future conqueror of Carthage, and himself a friendship soon sprang up, which ripened into a lifelong intimacy, and was of inestimable service to him throughout his career. It protected him from interference, opened to him the highest circles of Roman society, and enabled him to acquire a personal influence with the leading men, which stood him in good stead when he afterwards came forward to mediate between his countrymen and Rome. It placed within his reach opportunities for a close study of Rome and the Romans such as had fallen to no historian before him, and secured him the requisite leisure for using them, while Scipio's liberality more than once supplied him with the means of conducting difficult and costly historical investigations (Pliny, N.H. v. 9). In 151 the few surviving exiles were allowed to return to Greece. But the stay of Polybius in Achaea was brief. The estimation in which he was held at Rome is clearly shown by the anxiety of the consul Marcus (or Manlius) Manilius (149) to take him as his adviser on his expedition against Carthage. Polybius started to join him, but broke off his journey at Corcyra on learning that the Carthaginians were inclined to yield (xxxvi. 3). But when, in 147, Scipio himself took the command in Africa, Polybius hastened to join him, and was an eye-witness of the siege and destruction of Carthage. During his absence in Africa the Achaeans had made a last desperate attempt to assert their independence of Rome. He returned in 146 to find Corinth in ruins, the fairest cities of Achaea at the mercy of the Roman soldiery, and the famous Achaean League shattered to pieces (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). All the influence he possessed was freely spent in endeavouring to shield his countrymen from the worst consequences of their rashness. The excesses of the soldiery were checked, and at his special intercession the statues of Aratus and Philopoemen were preserved (xxxix. 14). An even more difficult task was that entrusted to him by the Roman authorities themselves, of persuading the Achaeans to acquiesce in the new regime imposed upon them by their con- querors, and of setting the new machinery in working order. With this work, which he accomplished so as to earn the heartfelt gratitude of his countrymen (xxxix. 16), his public career seems to have closed. The rest of his life was, so far as we know, devoted to the great history which is the lasting monument of his fame. He died, at the age of eighty-two, of a fall from his horse (Lucian, Macrob. 22). The base of a statue erected to him by Elis was found at Olympia in 1877. It bears the inscrip- tion 17 iroXis i? 'HXtiaw IIoXti/3ioj> AuKopra Me7aXo7roXiTT)i'. Of the forty books which made up the history of Polybius, the first five alone have come down to us in a complete form ; of the rest we have only more or less copious fragments. But the general plan and scope of the work are explained by Polybius himself. His intention was to make plain how and why it was that " all the known regions of the civilized world had fallen under the sway of Rome (iii. l). This empire of Rome, unprecedented in its extent and still more so in the rapidity with which it had been ac- quired, was the standing wonder of the age, and " who," he exclaims (l. l), " is so poor-spirited or indolent as not to wish to know by what means, and thanks to what sort of constitution, the Romans subdued the world in something less than fifty-three years? " These fifty-three years are those between 220 (the point at which the work of Aratus ended) and 168 B.C., and extend therefore f-om the outbreak of the Hannibalic War to the defeat of Perseus at Pydna. To this period then the main portion of his history is devoted from the third to the thirtieth book inclusive. But for clearness' sake he prefixes in bks. i. and ii. such a preliminary sketch of the earlier history of Rome, of the First Punic War, and of the contemporary events in Greece and Asia, as will enable his readers more fully to understand what follows. This seems to have been his original plan, but at the opening of bk. iii., written apparently after 146, he explains that he thought it desirable to add some account of the manner in which the Romans exercised the power they had won, of their temperament and policy and of the final catastrophe which destroyed Carthage and for ever broke np the Achaean League (iii. 4, 5). To this appendix, giving the history from 168-146, the last ten books are devoted. Whatever fault may be found with Polybius, there can be no question that he had formed a high conception of the task before him. He lays repeated stress on two qualities as distinguishing his history from the ordinary run of historical compositions. The first of these, its synoptic character, was partly necessitated by the nature of the period. The various states fringing the basin of the Mediterranean had become so inextricably interwoven that it was no longer possible to deal with them m isolation. Polybius therefore claims for his history that it will take a comprehensive POLYBIUS view of the whole course of events in the civilized world, within the limits of the period (i. 4). He thus aims at placing before his readers at each stage a complete survey of the field of action from Spain to Syria and Egypt. This synoptic method proceeds from a true appreciation of what is now called the unity of history, and to Polybius must be given the credit of having first firmly grasped and clearly enforced a lesson which the events of his own time were especially well calculated to teach. It is the great merit of his work that it gives such a picture of the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C. as no series of special narratives could have supplied. The second quality upon which Polybius insists as distinguishing his history from all others is its " pragmatic " character. It deals, that is, with events and with their causes, and aims at an accurate record and explanation of ascertained facts. This " pragmatic method " (ix. 2) makes history intelligible by explaining the how and the why; and, secondly, it is only when so written that history can perform its true function of instructing and guiding those who study it. For the great use of history, according to Polybius, is to contribute to the right conduct of human life (i. 35). But this it can do only if the historian bears in mind the true nature of his task. He must remember that the historian should not write as the dramatist does to charm or excite his audience for the moment (ii. 56). He will aim simply at exhibiting events in their true light, setting forth " the why and the how " in each case, not confusing causes and occasions, or dragging in old wives' fables, prodigies and marvels (ii. 16, iii. 48). He will omit nothing which can help to explain the events he is dealing with : the genius and temperament of particular peoples, their political and military systems, the characters of the leading men, the geographical features of the country, must all be taken into account. To this conception of history Polybius is on the whole consistently faithful. It is true that his anxiety to instruct leads often to a rather wearisome iteration of his favourite maxims, and that his digressions, such as that on the military art, are occasionally provokmgly long and didactic. But his comments and reflections are for the most part sound and instructive (e.g. those on the lessons to be learnt from the revolt of the mercenaries in Africa, i. 65; from the Celtic raids in Italy, ii. 35 ; and on the Roman character), while among his digres- sions are included such invaluable chapters as those on the Roman constitution (bk. vi), the graphic description of Cisalpine Gaul (bk. ii.) and the account of the rise and constitution of the Achaean League (ii. 38 seq.). To his anxiety again to trace back events to their first causes we owe, not only the careful inquiry (bk. iii.) into the origin of the Second Punic War, but the sketch of early Roman history in bk. i., and of the early treaties between Rome and Carthage in iii. 22 seq. Among the many defects which he censures in previous historians, not the least serious in his eyes are their inattention to the political and geographical surroundings of the history (ii. 16, iii. 36), and their neglect duly to set forth the causes of events (iii. 6). Polybius is equally explicit as regards the personal qualifications necessary for a good historian, and in this respect too his practice is in close agreement with his theory. Without a personal knowledge of affairs a writer will inevitably distort the true relations and im- portance of events (xii. 28). Such experience would have saved accomplished and fluent Greek writers like Timaeus from many of their blunders (xii. 25a), but the shortcomings of Roman soldiers and senators like Q. Fabius Pictor show that it is not enough by itself. Equally indispensable is careful painstaking research. All available evidence must be collected, thoroughly sifted, soberly weighed, and, lastly, the historian must be animated by a sincere love of truth and a calm impartiality. It is important to consider how far Polybius himself comes up to his standard. In his personal acquaintance with affairs, in the variety of his experience, and in his opportunities for forming a correct judgment on events he is without a rival among ancient historians. A great part of the period of which he treats fell within his own lifetime (iv. 2). He may just have remembered the battle of Cynoscephalae (197), and, as we have seen, he was actively engaged in the military and political affairs of the Achaean League. During his exile in Rome he was able to study the Roman constitu- tion, and the peculiarities of the Roman temperament; he made the acquaintance of Roman senators, and became the intimate friend of the greatest Roman of the day. Lastly, he was able to survey with his own eyes the field on which the great struggle between Rome and Hannibal was fought out. He left Rome only to witness the crowning triumph of Roman arms in Africa, and to gain a practical acquaintance with Roman methods of government by assisting in the settlement of Achaea. When, in 146, his public life closed, he completed his preparation of himself for his great work by laborious investigations of archives and monu- ments, and by a careful personal examination of historical- sites and scenes. To all this we must add that he was deeply read in the learning of his day, above all in the writings of earlier historians. Of Polybius's anxiety to get at the truth no better proof can be given than his conscientious investigation of original documents and monuments, and his careful study of geography and topography — both of them points in which his predecessors, as well as his successor Livy, conspicuously failed. Polybius is careful con- stantly to remind us that he writes for those who are lovers of knowledge, with whom truth is the first consideration. He closely studied the bronze tablets in Rome on which were in- scribed the early treaties concluded between Romans and Cartha- ginians. He quotes the actual language of the treaty which ended the First Punic War (i. 62), and of that between Hannibal and Philip of Macedon (vii. 9). In xvi. 15 he refers to a document which he had personally inspected in the archives at Rhodes, and in iii. 33 to the monument on the Lacinian promontory, recording the number of Hannibal's forces. According to Dionysius, i. 17, he got his date for the foundation of Rome from a tablet in the pontifical archives. As instances of his careful attention to geography and topography we have not only the fact of his widely extended travels, from the African coast and the Pillars of Hercules in the west, to the Euxine and the coasts of Asia Minor in the east, but also the geographical and topographical studies scattered throughout his history. Next to the duty of original research, Polybius ranks that of impartiality. Some amount of bias in favour of one's own country may, he thinks, be pardoned as natural (xvi. 14) ; but it is unpardon- able, he says, for the historian to set anything whatever above the truth. And on the whole, Polybius must be allowed here again to have practised what he preached. It is true that his affection for and pride in Arcadia appear in more than one passage (iv. 20, 21). as also does his dislike of the Aetolians (ii. 45, iv. 3, 16). His treatment of Aratus and Philojsoemen, the heroes of the Achaean League, and of Cleomenes of Sparta, its most constant enemy, is perhaps open to severer criticism. Certainly Cleomenes does not receive full justice at his hands. Similarly his views of Rome and the Romans may have been influenced by his firm belief in the necessity of accepting the Roman supremacy as inevitable, and by his intimacy with Scipio. He had a deep admiration for the great republic, for her well-balanced constitution, for her military system, and for the character of her citizens. But just as his patriotism does not blind him to the faults and follies of his country- men (xxxviii. 4, 5, 6), so he does not scruple to criticize Rome. He notices the incipient degeneracy of Rome after 146 (xviii. 35). He endeavours to hold the balance evenly between Rome and Carthage; he strongly condemns the Roman occupation of Sardinia as a breach of faith (iii. 28, 31); and he does full justice to Hannibal. Moreover, there can be no doubt that he sketched the Roman character in a masterly fashion. His interest in the study of character and his skill in its delinea- tion are everywhere noticeable. He believes, indeed, in an over- ruling fortune, which guides the course of events. It is fortune which has fashioned anew the face of the world in his own time (iv. 2), which has brought the whole civilized world into subjection to Rome (i. 4) ; and the Roman Empire itself is the most marvellous of her works (viii. 4). But under fortune not only political and geographical conditions but the characters and temperaments of nations and individuals play their part. The Romans had been fitted by their previous struggles for the conquest of the world (i. 63) ; they were chosen to punish the treachery of Philip of Macedon (xv. 4) ; and the greatest of them, Scipio himself, Polybius regards as the especial favourite of fortune (xxxii. i§; x. 5). In respect of form, Polybius is far the inferior of Livy, partly owing to his very virtues. His laudable desire to present a picture of the whole political situation at each important moment is fatal to the continuity of his narrative. Thus the thrilling story of the Second Punic War is broken in upon by digressions on the con- temporary affairs in Greece and Asia. More serious, however, than this excessive love of synchronism is his almost pedantic anxiety to edify. For grace and elegance of composition, and for the artistic presentation of events, he has a hardly concealed con- tempt. Hence a general and almost studied carelessness of effect, which mars his whole work. On the other hand he is never weary of preaching. His favourite theories of the nature and aims_ of history, of the distinction between the universal and special histories, of the duties of an historian, sound as most of them are in them- selves, are enforced with wearisome iteration; more than once the effect of a graphic picture is spoilt by obtrusive moralizing. Nor, lastly, is Polybius's style itself such as to compensate for these defects. It is, indeed, often impressive from the evident earnest- ness of the writer, and from his sense of the gravity of his subject, and is unspoilt by rhetoric or conceit. It has about it the ring of reality; the language is sometimes pithy and vigorous; and now and then we meet with apt metaphors, such as those borrowed from boxing (i. 57), from cock-fighting (i. 58), from draughts (i. 84). But, in spite of these redeeming features, the prevailing baldness of Polybius's style excludes him Irom the first rank among classical writers; and it is impossible to quarrel with the verdict pronounced by Dionysius of Hahcarnassus, who places him among those authors of later times who neglected the graces of style, and who paid for their neglect by leaving behind them works " which no one was patient enough to read through to the end." It is to the value and variety of his matter, to his critical insight, breadth of view and wide research, and not least to the surpassing importance and interest of the period with which he deals, that Polybius owes his place among the writers of history. What is known as to the fortunes of his histories, and the reputation they enjoyed, fully bears out this conclusion. The silence respecting 20 POLYCARP him maintained by Quintilian and by Lucian may reasonably be taken to imply their agreement with Dionysius as to his merits as a master of style. On the other hand, Cicero (De off. iii. 32) describes him as " bonus auctor in primis"; in the De republica (ii. 14) he praises highly his accuracy in matters of chronology; and Cicero's younger contemporary, Marcus Brutus, was a devoted student of Polybius, and was engaged on the eve of the battle of Pharsalia in compiling an epitome of his histories (Sui'das, s.ii. ; Plutarch, Brut. 4). Livy, however, notwithstanding the extent to which he used his writings (see LIVY), speaks of him in such qualified terms as to suggest the idea that his strong artistic sensi- bilities had been wounded by Polybius's literary defects. He has nothing better to say of him than that he is 'by no means con- temptible " (xxx. 45), and "not an untrustworthy author" (xxxiii. 10). Posidonius and Strabo, both of them Stoics like Polybius himself, are said to have written continuations of his history (Sui'das, s.v. ; Strabo p. 515). Arrian in the early part of the 2nd and Aelian in the 3rd century both speak of him with respect, though with reference mainly to his excellence as an authority on the art of war. In addition to his Histories Polybius was the author of the following smaller works: a life of Philopoemen (Polyb. x. 24), a history of the Numantine War (Cic. Ad Fam. v. 12), a treatise on tactics (Polyb. ix. 20; Arrian, Tactica; Aelian, Tact. i.). The geographical treatise, referred to by Geminus, is possibly identical with the thirty-fourth book of the Histories (Schweighauser, Praef. p. 184. AUTHORITIES. — The complete books (i.-v.) of the Histories were first printed in a Latin translation by Nicholas Perotti in 1473. The date of the first Greek edition, that by Obsopaeus, is 1530. For a full account of these and of later editions, as well as of the extant MSS., see Schweighauser's Preface to his edition of Polybius. Our knowledge of the contents of the fragmentary books is derived partly from quotations in ancient writers, but mainly from two collections of excerpts; one, probably the work of a late Byzantine compiler, was first printed at Basel in 1549 and contains extracts from books vi.-xviii. (wepl irpeafit'uav, vtpl apertjs icai xaxias) ; the other consists of two fragments from the " select passages " from Greek historians compiled by the directions of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century. To these must be added the Vatican excerpts edited by Angelo Mai in the present century. The following are the more important modern editions of Polybius: Ernest! (3 vols., 1763-1764); Schweighauser (8 vols., 1793, and Oxford, 1823); Bekker (2 vols., 1844); L. Dindorf (4 vols., 1866- 1868, 2nd ed., T. Biittner-Wobst, 5 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1904); Hultsch (4 vols., 1867-1871); J. L. Strachan-Davidson, Selections from Polybius (Oxford, 1888). For the literature of the subject, see Engelmann, Biblioth. script, class.: Script, graeci, pp. 646- 650 (8th ed. Leipzig, 1880). See also W. W. Capes, The History of the Achaean League (London, 1888); F. Susemihl, Gesch. d. griech. Litteratur in d. Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 80—128 (Leipzig, 1891— 1892); O. Cuntz, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1902); R. v. Scala, Die Studien des Polybios (Stuttgart, 1890); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), " a whole-hearted appreciation of Polybius"; J. L. Strachan-Davidson, in Hellenica, pp. 353- 387 (London, 1898), and in Appendix II. to Selections from Polybius pp. 642-668 (Oxford, 1888). (H. F. P.; X.) POLYCARP (c. 6o-c. 155), bishop of Smyrna and one of the Apostolic Fathers, derives much of his importance from the fact that he links together the apostolic age and that of nascent Catholicism. The sources from which we derive our knowledge of the life and activity of Polycarp are: (i) a few notices in the writings of Irenaeus, (2) the Epistle of Polycarp to the Church at Philippi, (3) the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, (4) the Epistle of the Church at Smyrna to the Church at Philomelium, giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp. Since these authori- ties have all been more or less called in question and some of them entirely rejected by recent criticism, it is necessary to say a few words about each. i. The Statements of Irenaeus are Sound (a) inh\sAdversus haereses, iii. 3, 4, (6) in the letter to Victor, where Irenaeus gives an account of Polycarp's visit to Rome, (c) in the letter to Florinus — a most important document which describes the intercourse between Irenaeus and Polycarp and Polycarp's relation with St John. No objection has been made against the genuineness of the statements in the Adversus haereses, but the authenticity of the two letters has been stoutly contested in recent times by van Manen.1 The main attack is directed against the Epistle to Florinus, doubtless because of its importance. " The manifest exaggerations," says van Manen, " coupled with the fact that Irenaeus never shows any signs of acquaintance with Florinus . . . enable us to perceive clearly that a writer otherwise unknown is speaking to us here." The criticism of van Manen has, however, found no supporters outside the Dutch school. The epistle is quoted by Eusebius 1 Ency. Bib. iii. 3490. (v. 20), and is accepted as genuine by Harnack2 and Kriiger.* The relevant statements in the letter, moreover, are supported by the references to Polycarp which we find in the body of Irenaeus's great work. 2. 'The Epistle of Polycarp. — Though Irenaeus states that Polycarp wrote many " letters to the neighbouring churches or to certain of the brethren "4 only one has been preserved, viz. the well-known letter to the Philippians. The epistle is largely involved in the Ignatian controversy (see IGNATIUS). The testimony which it affords to the Ignatian Epistles is so striking that those scholars who regard these letters as spurious are bound to reject the Epistle of Polycarp altogether, or at any rate to look upon it as largely interpolated. The former course has been adopted by Schwegler,6 Zeller,6 and Hilgenfeld,7 the latter by Ritschl8 and Lipsius.9 The rehabilitation of the Ignatian letters in modern times has, however, practically destroyed the attack on the Epistles of Polycarp. The external evidence in its favour is of considerable weight. Irenaeus (iii. 3, 4) expressly mentions and commends a " very adequate " (iKa.vwTa.Tri) letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, and we have no reason for doubting the identity of this letter mentioned by Irenaeus with our epistle. Eusebius (iii. 36) quotes extracts from the epistle, and some of the extracts contain the very passages which the critics have marked as interpolations, and Jerome (De Vir. III. xvii.) testifies that in his time the epistle was publicly read in the Asiatic churches. The internal evidence is equally strong. There is absolutely no motive for a forgery in the contents of the epistle. As Harnack says, " There is no trace of any tendency beyond the immediate purpose of maintaining the true Christian life in the church and warning it against covetousness and against an un- brotherly spirit. The occasion of the letter was a case of embezzle- ment, the guilty individual being a presbyter at Philippi. It shows a fine combination of mildness with severity; the language is simple but powerful, and, while there is undoubtedly a lack of original ideas, the author shows remarkable skill in weaving together pregnant sentences and impressive warnings selected from the apostolic epistles and the first Epistle of Clement. In these circum- stances it would never have occurred to any one to doubt the genuineness of the epistle or to suppose that it had been inter- polated, but for the fact that in several passages reference is made to Ignatius and his epistles." The date of the epistle depends upon the date of the Ignatian letters and is now 'generally fixed between 112 and 118. An attempt has been made in some quarters to prove that certain allusions in the epistle imply the rise of the heresy of Marcion and that it cannot therefore be placed earlier than 140. Lightfoot, however, has proved that Polycarp's statements may equally well be directed against Corinthianism or any other form of Docetism, while some of his arguments are absolutely inapplicable to Marcionism. 3. The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp. — This epistle has of course been subjected to the same criticism as has been directed against the other epistles of Ignatius (see IGNATIUS). Over and above the general criticism, which may now be said to have been completely answered by the investigations of Zahn, Lightfoot and Harnack, one or two special arguments have been brought against the Epistle to Polycarp. Ussher, for instance, while accepting the other six epistles, rejected this on the ground that Jerome says that Ignatius only sent one letter to Smyrna — a mistake due to his misinterpre- tation of Eusebius. Some modern scholars (among whom Harnack was formerly numbered, though he has modified his views on the point) feel a difficulty about the peremptory tone which Ignatius adopts towards Polycarp. There was some force in this argument when the Ignatian Epistles were dated about 140, as in that case Polycarp would have been an old and venerable man at the time. But now that the date is put back to about 112 the difficulty vanishes, since Polycarp was not much over forty when he received the letter. We must remember, too, that Ignatius was writing under the consciousness of impending martyrdom and evidently felt that this gave him the right to criticize the bishops and churches of Asia. 4. The Letter of the Church at Smyrna to the Philomelians is a most important document, because we derive from it all our in- formation with regard to Polycarp's martyrdom. Eusebius has preserved the greater part of this epistle (iv. 15), but we possess it entire with various concluding observations in several Greek MSS., and also in a Latin translation. The epistle gives a minute description of the persecution in Smyrna, of the last days of Polycarp and of his trial and martyrdom; and as it contains many instructive details and professes to have been written not long after the events to which it refers, it has always been regarded as one of the most precious remains of the 2nd century. Certain recent critics, however, have questioned the authenticity of the narrative. 2 Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 593-594. 3 Early Christian Literature (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 150. 4 Letter to Florinus ap. Euseb. v. 20. 5 Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, ii. 154. e Apostolgeschichte, p. 52. 7 A postolische Vater, p. 272. 8 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, p. 584. * Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c., p. 14. POLYCARP 21 Lipsius brings1 the date of the epistle down to about 260, though he admits many of the statements as trustworthy. Keim, too,1 endeavours to show that, although it was based on good information, it could not have been composed till the middle of the 3rd century. A similar position has also been taken up by Schurer,' Holtzmann,' Gebhardt,6 Reville," and van Manen.7 The last named regards the document " as a decorated narrative of the saint's martyrdom framed after the pattern of Jesus' martyrdom," though he thinks that it cannot be put as late as 250, but must fall within the limits of the 2nd century. It cannot be said, however, that the case against the document has been at all substantiated, and the more modi-rate school of modern critics (e.g. Lightfoot,8 Harnack,8 Krugcr)10 is unanimous in regarding it as an authentic document, though it recognizes that here and there a few slight interpolations have been inserted." Besides these we have no other sources for the life of Polycarp; the Vita S. Polycarpi auctore Pionio (published by Duchesne, Paris, 1881, and Lightfoot Ignatius and Polycarp, 1885, ii- 1015-1047) is worthless. Assuming the genuineness of the documents mentioned, we now proceed to collect the scanty information which they afford with regard to Polycarp's career. Very little is known about his early life. He must have been born not later than the year 6g, for on the day of his death (c. 155) he declared that he had served the Lord for eighty-six years (Martyrium, 9). The statement seems to imply that he was of Christian parentage ; he cannot have been older than eighty-six at the time of his martyrdom, since he had paid a visit to Rome almost immediately before. Irenaeus tells us that in early life Polycarp " had been taught by apostles and lived in familiar intercourse with many that had seen Christ " (iii. 3,4). This testimony is expanded in the remarkable words which Irenaeus addresses to Florinus: " I saw thee when I was still a boy (TTGUS in &v) in Lower Asia in company with Polycarp ... I can even now point out the place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed, and describe his goings out and his comings in, his manner of life and his personal appearance and the discourses which he delivered to the people, how he used to speak of his intercourse with John and with the rest of those who had seen the Lord, and how he would relate their words. And everything that he had heard from them about the Lord, about His miracles and about His teaching, Polycarp used to tell us as one who had received it from those who had seen the Word of Life with their own eyes, and all this in perfect harmony with the Scriptures. To these things I used to listen at the time, through the mercy of God vouchsafed to me, noting them down, not on paper but in my heart, and constantly by the grace of God I brood over my accurate recollections." These are priceless words, for they establish a chain of tradition (John-Polycarp-Irenaeus) which is without a parallel in early church history. Polycarp thus becomes the living link between the Apostolic age and the great writers who flourished at the end of the 2nd century. Recent criticism, however, has endeavoured to destroy the force of the words of Irenaeus. Harnack, for instance, attacks this link at both ends.12 (a) The connexion of Irenaeus and Polycarp, he argues, is very weak, because Irenaeus was only a boy (irals) at the time, and his recollections therefore carry very little weight. The fact too that he never shows any signs of having been influ- enced by Polycarp and never once quotes his writings is a further proof that the relation between them was slight, (b) The connexion which Irenaeus tries to establish between Polycarp and John the apostle is probably due to a blunder. Irenaeus has confused John the apostle and John the presbyter. Polycarp was the disciple of the latter, not the former. In this second 1 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1874), p. 200 seq. 2 A us dem Urchristcnth:'.m (1878), p. 90. 8 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1870), p. 203 seq. 4 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1877). 5 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1875). 6 De anno Polycarpi (1881). 7 Oud-Christ (1861), and Ency. Bib. iii. 3479. ' Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 589 seq. • Gesch. d. altchrist. Lit. II. i. 341. 10 Early Christian Lit. (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 380. "Amongst these we ought probably to include the expression i) KofloXoci) (KK\riTTa, tongue), the term for a book which contains side by side versions of the same text in several different languages; the most important polyglotts are editions of the Bible, or its parts, in which the Hebrew and Greek originals are exhibited along with the great historical versions, which are of value for the history of the text and its interpretation. The first enterprise of this kind is the famous Hexapla of Origen in which the Old Testament Scriptures were written in six parallel columns, the first containing the Hebrew text, the second a transliteration of this in Greek letters, the third and fourth the Greek translations by Aquila and Sym- machus, the fifth the Septuagint version as revised by Origen, the sixth the translation by Theodotion. Inasmuch, however, as only two languages, Hebrew and Greek, were employed the work was rather diglott than polyglott in the usual sense. After the invention of printing and the revival of philological studies, polyglotts became a favourite means of advancing the knowledge of Eastern languages (for which no good helps were available) as well as the study of Scripture. The series began with the Complutensian printed by Arnaldus Guilielmus de Brocario at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes at the university at Alcala de Henares (Complutum). The first volume of this, containing the New Testament in Greek and Latin, was completed on the loth of January 1514. In vols. ii.-v. (finished on July 10, 1517) the Hebrew text of the Old Testament was printed in the first column of each page, followed by the Latin Vulgate and then by the Septuagint version with an interlinear Latin trans- lation. Below these stood the Chaldee, again with a Latin translation. The sixth volume containing an appendix is dated 1515, but the work did not receive the papal sanction till March 1520, and was apparently not issued till 1522. The chief editors were Juan de Vergara, Lopez de Zuniga (Stunica), Nunez de Guzman (Pincianus), Antonio de Librixa (Nebrissensis), and Demetrius Ducas. About half a century after the Complu- tensian came the Antwerp Polyglott, printed by Christopher Plantin (1569-1572, in 8 vols. folio). Of this the principal editor was Arias Montanus aided by Guido Fabricius Boderianus, Raphelengius, Masius, Lucas of Bruges and others. This work was under the patronage of Philip II. of Spain; it added a new language to those of the Complutensian by including the Syriac New Testament; and, while the earlier polyglott had only the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, the Antwerp Bible had also the Targum on the Prophets, and on Esther, Job, Psalms and the Salomonic writings. Next came Le Jay's Paris Poly- glotl (1645), which embraces the first printed texts of the Syriac Old Testament (edited by Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite, but the book of Ruth by Abraham Ecchelensis, also a Maronite) and of the Samaritan Pentateuch and version (by Morinus). It has also an Arabic version, or rather a series of various Arabic versions. The last great polyglott is Brian Walton's (London, 1657), which is much less beautiful than Le Jay's but more complete in various ways, including, among other things, the Syriac of Esther and of several apocryphal books for which it is wanting in the Paris Bible, Persian versions of the Pentateuch and Gospels, and the Psalms and New Testament in Ethiopic. Walton was aided by able scholars, and used much new manuscript material. His prolegomena, too, and collections of various readings mark an important advance in biblical criticism. It was in connexion with this polyglott that E. Castell produced his famous Heptaglott Lexicon (2 vols. folio, London, 1669), an astounding monument of industry and erudition even when allowance is made for the fact that for the Arabic he had the great MS. lexicon compiled and left to the university of Cambridge by the almost forgotten W. Bedwell. The liberality of Cardinal Ximenes, who is said to have spent half a million ducats on it, removed the Complu- tensian polyglott from the risks of commerce. The other three editions all brought their promoters to the verge of ruin. The later polyglotts are of little scientific importance, the best recent texts having been confined to a single language ; but every biblical student still uses Walton and, if he can get it, Le Jay. Of the numerous polyglott editions of parts of the Bible it may suffice to mention the Genoa psalter of 1516, edited by Giustini- ani, bishop of Nebbio. This is in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldee and Arabic, and is interesting from the character of the Chaldee text, being the first specimen of Western printing in the Arabic character, and from a curious note on Columbus and the dis- covery of America on the margin of Psalm xix. (A. W. Po.) POLYGNOTUS, Greek painter in the middle of the jth century B.C., son of Aglaophon, was a native of Thasos, but was adopted by the Athenians, and admitted to their citizenship. He painted for them in the time of Cimon a picture of the taking of Ilium on the walls of the Stoa Poecile, and another of the marriage of the daughters of Leucippus in the Anaceum. In the hall at the entrance to the Acropolis other works of his were preserved. The most important, however, of his paintings were his frescoes in a building erected at Delphi by the people of Cnidus. The subjects of these were the visit to Hades by Odysseus, and the taking of Ilium. Fortunately the traveller Pausanias has left us a careful description of these paintings, figure by figure (Paus. x. 25-31). The foundations of the building have been recovered in the course of the French excavations at Delphi. From this evidence, some modern archaeologists have tried to reconstruct the paintings, excepting of course the colours of them. The best of these reconstructions is by Carl Robert, who by the help of vase-paintings of the middle of the fifth century has succeeded in recovering both the perspective of Polygnotus and the character of his figures (see GREEK ART, fig. 29). The figures were detached and seldom overlapping, ranged in two or three rows one above another; and the farther were not smaller nor dimmer than the nearer. The designs are repeated in Frazer's Pausanias, v. 360 and 372. It will hence appear that paintings at this time were executed on almost precisely the same plan as contemporary sculptural reliefs. We learn also that Polygnotus employed but few colours, and those simple. Technically his art was primitive. His excellence lay in the beauty of his drawing of individual figures; but especially in the "ethical" and ideal character of his art. The contemporary, and perhaps the teacher, of Pheidias, he had the same grand manner. Simplicity, which was almost childlike, sentiment at once noble and gentle, extreme grace and charm of execution, marked his works, in contrast to the more animated, complicated and technically superior paintings of a later age. (P. G.) POLYGON (Gr. TroXus, many, and yuivla., an angle), in geo- metry, a figure enclosed by any number of lines — the sides — which intersect in pairs at the corners or vertices. If the sides are coplanar, the polygon is said to be "plane"; if not, then it is a "skew" or "gauche" polygon. If the figure lies entirely to one side of each of the bounding lines the figure is " convex"; if not it is " re-entrant " or " concave ." A "regular" polygon has all its sides and angles equal, i.e. it is equilateral and equi- angular; if the sides and angles be not equal the polygon is "irregular." Of polygons inscriptible in a circle an equilateral POLYGON figure is necessarily equiangular, but the converse is only true when the number of sides is odd. The term regular polygon is usually restricted to " convex " polygons; a special class of polygons (regular in the wider sense) has been named " star polygons " on account of their resemblance to star-rays; these are, however, concave. Polygons, especially of the " regular " and " star " types, were extensively studied by the Greek geometers. There are two important corollaries to prop. 32, book i., of Euclid's Elements rrluting to polygons. Having proved that the sum of the angles of a triangle is a straight angle, i.e. two right angles, it is readily seen that the sum of. the internal angles of a polygon (necessarily convex) of n sides is re —2 straight angles (2re —4 right angles), for the on can be divided into n—2 triangles by lines joining one vertex to the other vertices. The second corollary is that the sum of the supplements of the internal angles, measured in the same direction, is 4 right angles, and is thus independent of the number of sides. The systematic discussion of regular polygons with respect to the inscribed and circumscribed circles is given in the fourth book of the Elements. (We may note that the construction of an equilateral triangle and square appear in the first book.) The triangle is dis- cussed in props. 2-6; the square in props. 6-9; the pentagon (5-side) in props. 10-14; the hexagon (6-side) in prop. 15; and the quin- decagon in prop. 16. The triangle and square call for no special mention here, other than that any triangle can be inscribed or circumscribed to a circle. The pentagon is of more interest. Euclid bases his construction upon the fact that the isosceles triangle formed by joining the extremities of one side of a regular penta- gon to the opposite vertex has each angle at the base double the angle at the vertex. He constructs this triangle in prop. 10, by dividing a line in medial section, i.e. the square of one part equal to the product of the other part and the whole line (a construction given in book ii. u), and then showing that the greater segment is the base of the required triangle, the remaining sides being each equal to the whole line. The inscription of a pentagon in a circle is effected by inscribing an isosceles triangle similar to that constructed in prop. 10, bisecting the angles at the base and producing the bisec- tors to meet the circle. Euclid then proves that these intersections and the three vertices of the triangle are the vertices of the required pentagon. The circumscription of a pentagon is effected by con- structing an inscribed pentagon, and drawing tangents to the circle at the vertices. This supplies a general method for circumscribing a polygon if the inscribed be given, and conversely. In book xiii., prop. 10, an alternative method for inscribing a pentagon is indicated, for it is there shown that the sum of the squares of the sides of a square and hexagon inscribed in the same circle equals the square of the side of the pentagon. It may be incidentally noticed that Euclid's construction of the isosceles triangle which has its basal angles double the vertical angle solves the problem of quinquesecting a right angle; moreover, the base of the triangle is the side of the regular decagon inscribed in a circle having the vertex as centre and the sides of the triangle as radius. The inscription of a hexagon in a circle (prop. 15) reminds one of the Pythagorean result that six equilateral triangles placed about a common vertex form a plane; hence the bases form a regular hexagon. The side of a hexagon inscribed in a circle obviously equals the radius of the circle. The inscription of the quindecagon in a circle is made to depend upon the fact that the difference of the arcs of a circle intercepted by covertical sides of a regular pentagon and equilateral triangle is $ — i, = j*s> of the whole circumference, and hence the bisection of this intercepted arc (by book iii., 30) gives the side of the quindecagon. The methods of Euclid permit the construction of the following series of inscribed polygons: from the square, the 8-side or octagon, I6-, 32- . . ., or generally 4-2"-side; from the hexagon, the 12-side or dodecagon, 24-, 48- . . ., or generally the 6-2"-side; from the pentagon, the lo-side or decagon, 20-, 40- . . ., or generally 5-2"- side; from the quindecagon, the 30-, 60- . . ., or generally 15-2"- side. It was long supposed that no other inscribed polygons were possible of construction by elementary methods (i.e. by the ruler and compasses); Gauss disproved this by forming the 17-side, and he subsequently generalized his method for the (2n-|-i)-side, when this number is prime. The problem of the construction of an inscribed heptagon, nonagon, or generally of any polygon having an odd number of sides, is readily reduced to the construction of a certain isosceles triangle. Suppose the polygon to have (2n + i) sides. Join the extremities of one side to the opposite vertex, and consider the triangle so formed. It is readily seen that the angle at the base is n times the angle at the vertex. In the heptagon the ratio is 3, in the nonagon 4, and so on. The Arabian geometers of the 9th century showed that the heptagon required the solution of a cubic equation, thus resembling the Pythagorean problems of " duplicating the cube " and " tri- secting an angle." Edmund Halley gave solutions for the heptagon and nonagon by means of the parabola and circle, and by a parabola and hyperbola respectively. Although rigorous methods for inscribing the general polygons in a circle are wanting, many approximate ones have been devised. Two such methods are here given: (i) Divide the diameter of the circle into as many parts as the polygon has sides. On the diameter construct an equilateral triangle; and from its vertex draw a line through the second division along the diameter, measured from an extremity, and produce this Tine to intercept the circle. Then the chord joining this point to the extremity of the diameter is the side of the required polygon. (2) Divide the diameter as before, and draw also the perpendicular diameter. Take points on these diameters beyond the circle and at a dis- tance from the circle equal to one division of the diameter. Join the points so obtained; and draw a line from the point nearest the divided diameter where this line intercepts the circle to the third division from the produced extremity; this line is the required length. The construction of any regular polygon on a given side may be readily performed with a protractor or scale of chords, for it is only necessary to lay off from the extremities of the given side lines equal in length to the given base, at angles equal to the interior angle of the polygon, and repeating the process at each extremity so obtained, the angle being always tak--n on the same side; or lines may be laid off at one half of the interior angles, describing a circle having the meet of these lines as centre and their length as radius, and then measuring the given base around the circumference. Star Polygons. — These figures were studied by the Pythagoreans, and subsequently engaged the attention of many geometers — Boethius, Athelard of Bath, Thomas Bradwardine, archbishop of Canterbury, Johannes Kepler and others. Mystical and magical properties were assigned to them at an early date; the Pythagoreans regarded the pentagram, the star polygon derived from the pentagon, as the symbol of health, the Platonists of well-being, while .others used it to symbolize happiness. Engraven on metal, &c.. it is worn in almost every country as a charm or amulet. The pentagon gives rise to one star polygon, the hexagon gives none, the heptagon two, the octagon one, and the nonagon two. In general, the number of star polygons which can be drawn with the vertices of an n-point regular polygon is the number of numbers which are not factors of n and are less than J». A Pentagrams. Heptagrams. Nonograms. Number of n-point and n-side Polygons. A polygon may be regarded as determined by the joins of points or the meets of lines. The termination -gram is often applied to the figures determined by lines, e.g, pentagram, hexagram. It is of interest to know how many polygons can be formed with n given points as vertices (no three of which are collinear), or with n given lines as sides (no two of which are parallel). Considering the case of points it is obvious that we can join a chosen point with any one cf the remaining (n — i) points; any one of these (re — i) points can be joined to any one of the remaining (n—2), and by proceeding similarly it is seen that we can pass through the re points in (n — i) (n—2) . . . 2-1 or (n — i)! ways. It is obvious that the direction in which we pass is immaterial ; hence we must divide this number by 2, thus obtaining (n — 1)!/2 as the required number. In a similar manner it may be shown that the number of polygons determined by n lines is. (n — 1)!/2. Thus five points or lines determine 12 pentagons, 6 points or lines 60 hexagons, and so on. Mensuration. — In the regular polygons the fact that they can be inscribed and circumscribed to a circle affords convenient expres- sions for their area, &c. In a w-gon, i.e. a polygon with n-sides, each side subtends at the centre the angle 2r/n, i.e. 36o°/n, and each internal angle is (n— 2)ir/n or (n—2) iSo°fn. Calling the length of side a we may derive the following relations: Area Number of sides. Triangle. Square. 5 Pentagon. 6 Hexagon. Heptagon. 8 Octagon. 9 Nonagon. 10 Decagon. ii Undecagon. 12 Dodecagon. a ft A R r 60° 120° 0-43301 0-57735 0-28867 9°°o 90° i 0-70710 o-5 108° 72° 1-72048 0-85065 0-68819 120° 60° 2-59808 i 0-86602 1284" 5if° 3-6339I 1-1523 1-0383 I35°0 45° 4-82843 1-3065 1-2071 140° 40° 6-18182 1-4619 1-3737 144° 36° 7-69421 1-6180 1-5388 H7 A" 3*A° 9-36564 1-7747 1-7028 150° 30° 11-19615 1-9318 1-8660 POLYGONACEAE (A) = J ^rij /i^ri2'V,ri2 /v-n2'\~ri2v — 2X .[ II CH< I | CH< >CH2,&c. \CH2, CH2C-H2 \CH2-CH2, \CH2-CH^ Cyc/o-propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane. The unsaturated members of the series are named on the Geneva system in which the termination -one is replaced by-ene, -diene, -Iriene, according to the number of double linkages in the compound, the position of such double linkages being shown by a numeral immediately following the suffix -ene; for example I. is methyl-cyc/o-hexadiene — i. 3. An alterna- tive method employs A. v. Baeyer's symbol A. Thus A 2-4 indicates the presence of two double bonds in the molecule situated immediately after the carbon atoms 2 and 4; for example II. is A 2-4 dihydrophthalic acid. C(CO.H):CH (6) (5) (6) II. (5) As to the stability of these compounds, most trimethylene derivatives are comparatively unstable, the ring being broken fairly readily; the tetramethylene derivatives are rather more stable and the penta- and hexa-methylene compounds are very stable, showing little tendency to form open chain compounds under ordinary conditions (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). Isomerism. — No isomerism can occur in the monosubstitution derivatives but ordinary position isomerism exists in the di- and poly-substitution compounds. Stereo-isomerism may occur: the simplest examples are the dibasic acids, where a. cis- (maleinoid) form and a trans- (fumaroid) form have been ob- served. These isomers may frequently be distinguished by the facts that the «'s-acids yield anhydrides more readily than the trans-acids, and are generally converted into the trans-adds on heating with hydrochloric acid. O. Aschan (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 3389) depicts these cases by representing the plane of the carbon atoms of the ring as a straight line and denoting the substituted hydrogen atoms by the letters X, Y, Z. Thus for dicarboxylic acids (C02H = X) the possibilities are represented by .A. .A. / • \ -A. /, \ X /¥» (cis), JT (trans), jj (I). The trans compound is perfectly asymmetric and so its mirror image (I) should exist, and, as all the trans compounds syn- thetically prepared are optically inactive, they are presumably racemic compounds (see O. Aschan, Chemie der alicyklischen Verbindungen, p. 346 seq.). General Methods of Formation. — Hydrocarbons may be ob- tained from the dihalogen paraffins by the action of sodium or zinc 'dust, provided that the halogen atoms are not attached to the same or to adjacent carbon atoms (A. Freund, Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625; W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 213):— CH2-CH2-Br , ... ,vr p , CHz-CHz. CHrCH2-Br+2Na-2NaBr+CHrCH2! by the action of hydriodic acid and phosphorus or of phos- phonium iodide on benzene hydrocarbons (F. Wreden, Ann., 1877, 187, p. 153; A. v. Baeyer, ibid., 1870, 155, p. 266), ben- zene giving methylpentamethylene; by passing the vapour of benzene hydrocarbons over finely divided nickel at 180-250° C. (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, Comptes rettdus, 1901, 132, p. 210 seq.); and from hydrazines of the type CnHm-i-NH-NH* by oxidation with alkaline potassium ferricyanide (N. Kijner, Journ. prak. Chem., 1901, 64, p. 113). Unsaturated hydro- carbons of the series may be prepared from the corre- sponding alcohols by the elimination of a molecule of water, using either the xanthogenic ester method of L. Tschugaeff (Ber. 1899, 32, p. 3332): CnH2n_IONa->CBH2n_,O-CS.SNa(R) — >CnH2n-2+COS+R-SH; or simply by dehydrating with anhydrous oxalic acid (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3249); and by eliminating the halogen acid from mono- or di-halogen polymethylene compounds by heating them with quinoline. Alcohols are obtained from the corresponding halogen com- pounds by the action of moist silver oxide, or by warming them with silver acetate and acetic acid; by the reduction of ketones with metallic sodium; by passing the vapours of monohydric phenols and hydrogen over finely divided nickel (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, loc. «'/.); by the reduction of cyclic esters with POLYMETHYLENES sodium and alcohol (L. Bouveault and G. Blanc, Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1676; 137, p. 60); and by the addition of the elements of water to the unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons on boiling with dilute acids. Aldehydes and Ketones. — The aldehydes are prepared in the usual manner from primary alcohols and acids. The ketones are obtained by the dry distillation of the calcium salts of di- basic saturated aliphatic acids (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 309): [CH2-CH2-CO2]2Ca->[CH2-CH2]2CO; by the action of sodium on the esters of acids of the adipic and pimelic acid series (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 103, 2475): — CH2-CH2-CH2-CO2R CH2-CH2-CH2. CH2-CH2-CO2R ~*CH2-CH2C-O ' by the action of sodium ethylate on 5-ketonic acids (D. Vor- lander, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348): — /CH2-CH2v X xCH2-CH2\ CH< >CO; XCO-CH3 \CO-CH2 ' from sodio-malonic ester and a|3-unsaturated ketones or ketonic esters: — /CH2 COV (R02C)2CH2+Ph-CH :CH-CO-CH3-»PhCH< >CH2; \CH(C02R)-CO/ from aceto-acetic ester and esters of a|3-unsaturated acids, followed by elimination of the carboxyl group: — 2x >CHCO2R ; / 2CH8-CO-CH2-CO2R+OHC-R'- CH,; CH3-CO-CH2-CO2R+R'2C:CH-CO2R-»CO< \CH2-CO by the condensation of two molecules of aceto-acetic ester with aldehydes followed by saponification (E. Knoevenagel, Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25; 1896, 288, p. 321; Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4461) :— J"'\ :— co from i-s-diketones which contain a methyl group next the keto-group (W. Kerp, Ann., 1896, 290, p. 123): — /CH2-C(CH3k 3CH,-CO-CHS-»(CH3)2C< >CH; XCH2 CO/ by the condensation of succinic acid with sodium ethylate, fol- lowed by saponification and elimination of carbon dioxide: — CH2-CH2-CO ^CO-CH.i-CHz1 and from the condensation of ethyl oxalate with esters of other dibasic acids in presence of sodium ethylate (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1470; 1899, 32, p. 1933):— C°2R ___ /CO2R CO-CH* 2C2H4(C02H)2-v +CH2 > COjR NC02R CO- Acids may be prepared by the action of dihalogen paraffins on sodio-malonic ester, or sodio-aceto-acetic ester (W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 194): — C2H1Br2+2NaCH(C02R)2->(CH2)2C(C02R)2+CH2(CO2R)2; ethyl butane tetracarboxylate is also formed which may be converted into a tetramethylene carboxylic ester by the action of bromine on its disodium derivative (W. H. Perkin and Sinclair, ibid., 1829, 61, p. 36). The esters of the acids may also be obtained by condensing sodio-malonic ester with a-halogen derivatives of unsaturated acids: — /CH-C02R CH3-CH : CBr-CO2R+NaCH(CO2R)2-»CH3-CH/ . | \C(C02R)2 by the action of diazomethane or diazoacetic ester on the esters of unsaturated acids, the pyrazoline carboxylic esters so formed losing nitrogen when heated and yielding acids of the cyclo- propane series (E. Buchner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 703; Ann., 1895, 284, p. 212; H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1891): — CH-CO2R N:N-CH-CO2R XCHC02R CH2N2+ II -> 1 I ->H2C< ' ; CH-CO2R H2C— CH-CO2R \CHCO2R and by the Grignard reaction (S. Malmgren, Ber., 1903, 36, pp. 668, 2(122; N. Zelinsky, ibid., 1902, 35, p. 2687). Cydo-propane Group. Trimethylene, C3H6, obtained by A. Freund (Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625) by heating trimethylene bromide with sodium, is a gas, which may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at —35° C. (749 mm.). It dis- solves gradually in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming propyl sulphate. Hydriodic acid converts it into w-propyl iodide. It is decomposed by chlorine in the presence of sunlight, with explosive violence. It is stable to cold potassium permanganate. Cyclo-propane carboxylic acid, C3H5-CO2H, is prepared by heating the i.i-dicarboxylic acid; and by the hydrolysis of its nitrile, formed by heating -y-chlorbutyro-nitrilewith potash (L. Henry and P. Dalle, Chem. Centralblatt, 1901, I, p. 1357; 1902, I, p. 913). .It is a colour- less oil, moderately soluble in water. The I.I dicarboxylic acid is prepared from ethylene dibromide and sodio-malonic ester. The ring is split by sulphuric or hydrobromic acids. The cis 1 .2-cydo-propane dicarboxylic acid is formed by elimi- nating carbon dioxide from cyc/0-propane tricarboxylic acid -1.2.3 (from a/3-dibrompropionic ester and sodio-malonic ester). The trans-acid is produced on heating pyrazolin-4.5-dicarbpxylic ester, or by the action of alcoholic potash on a-bromglutaric ester. It does not yield an anhydride. Cydo-butane Group. Cydo-butane, C4H8, was obtained by R. Willstatter (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 3979) by the reduction of cyclobutene by the Sabatier and Senderens method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 1 1-12° C., and its vapour burns with a luminous flame. Reduction at 1 80- 200° C. by the above method gives n-butane. Cydo-butene, CiH6, formed by distilling trimethyl-cyc/o-butyl- ammonium hydroxide, boils at 1.5-2.0° C. (see N. Zelinsky, ibid., p. 4744; G. Schweter, ibid., p. 1604). When sodio-malonic ester is condensed with trimethylene bromide the chief product is ethyl pentane tetracarboxylate, tetramethylene i.i-dicarboxylic ester being also formed, and from this the free acid may be obtained on hydrolysis. It melts at 154-156° C., losing carbon dioxide and passing into cycfo-butane carboxylic acid, C4H7CO2H. This basic acid yields a monobrom derivative which, by the action of aqueous potash, gives the corresponding hydroxy- cyc/o-butane carboxylic acid, C4H6(OH)-CO2H. Attempts to elimi- nate water from this acid and so produce an unsaturated acid were unsuccessful; on warming with sulphuric acid, carbon monoxide is eliminated and cyc/o-butanone (keto-tetramethylene) is probably formed. The truxillic acids, CisHieO^ which result by the hydrolytic split- ting of truxilline, Cs8H«N2Os, are phenyl derivatives of cyc/o-butane. Their constitution was determined by C. Liebermann (Ber., 1 888, 21, p. 2342; 1889, 22, p. 124 seq.). They are polymers of cinnamic acid, into which they readily pass on distillation. The a-acid on oxidation yields benzoic acid, whilst the /3-acid yields benzil in addition. The a-acid is diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.3; and the 0-acid diphenyl-34-cyclo-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.2. By alkalis they are transformed into stereo-isomers, the a-acid giving -y-truxillic acid, and the j3-acid 6-truxillic acid. The a-acid was synthesized by C. N. Riiber (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2411; 1904, 37, p. 2274), by oxidizing diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane-bismethy- lene malonic acid (fron cinnamic aldehyde and malonic acid in the presence of quinoline) with potassium permanganate. Cydo-pentane Group. Derivatives may be prepared in many cases by the breaking down of the benzene ring when it contains an accumulation of negative atoms (T. Zincke, Ber., 1886-1894; A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2780; 1889, 22, p. 1238), this type of reaction being generally brought about by the action of chlorine on phenols in the presence of alkalis (see CHEMISTRY: Organic). A somewhat related example is seen in the case of croconic acid, which is formed by the action of alkaline oxidizing agents on hexa-oxybenzene : — HO-C-C(OH) : C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-Ca .«. I -» .»- !-» A >CO HO-C-C(OH) i C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-CO/ Hexa-oxybenzene. Rhodizonic acid. Croconic acid. Cyclo-pentane, C6Hio, is obtained from rycfo-pentanone by reducing it to the corresponding secondary alcohol, converting this into the iodo-compound, which is finally reduced to the hydrocarbon (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 327). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 50-51° C. Methyl-cydo-pentane, CsHgCHs, first obtained by F. Wreden (Ann., 1877, 187, p. 163) by the action of hydriodic acid and red phosphorus on benzene, and considered to be hexahydro- benzene, is obtained synthetically by the action of sodium on 1-5 dibromhexane ; and by the action of magnesium on acetylbutyl iodide (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2684). It is a liquid boiling at 72° C. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) oxidizes it to succinic and acetic acids. Cydo-pentene, C6H8, a liquid obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on iodo-cycto-pentane, boils at 45° C. Cyclo- pentadiene, CeHe, is found in the first runnings from crude benzene distillations. It is a liquid which boils at 41° C. It rapidly poly- merizes to di-cyc/o-pentadiene. The -CH2- group is very reactive and behaves in a similar manner to the grouping -CO-CH2-CO- in open chain compounds, e.g. with aldehydes and ketones it gives the POLYMETHYLENES fulvcnes, substances characterized by their intense orange-red colour HC:CH (J. Thiele, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 669). Phenylfulven, \ >C:CHPh, HC-.CH7 obtained from benzaldehyde and cyc/o-pentadiene, forms dark red plates. Diphenylfulven, from benzophenone and cyc/o-pentadienc, crystallizes in deep red prisms. Dimethylfulven is an orange- coloured oil which oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts it into a deep red tar. Cydo-pentanone, CsHsO, first prepared pure by the distillation of calcium adipate (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 312), is also ob- tained by the action of sodium on the esters of pimelic acid; by the distillation of calcium succinate; and by hydrolysis of the cyclo- pentanone carboxylic acid, obtained by condensing adipic and oxalic esters in the presence of sodium ethylate. Reduction gives cyc/o-pentanol, CsH9OH. Croconic acid (dioxy-eyc/0-pentene-trione), C6H2O6, is formed when triquinoyl is boiled with water, or by the oxidation of hexa-oxyben- zene or dioxydiquinoyl in alkaline solution (T. Zincke, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1267). It has the character of a quinone. On oxidation it yields cyc/o-pentane-pentanone (leuconic acid). Derivatives of the cyc/o-pentane group are met with in the break- ing-down products of the terpenes &.».). Campholactone, C9H]4O2, is the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o- pentanol-5-carboxylic acid-3. For an isomer, isocampholactone (the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-eyc/o-pentanol-3-carboxylic acid-i) see W. H. Perkin, jun., Proc. Ghent. Soc., 1903, 19, p. 61. Lauronolic acid, C,HMO2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-4-acid-i. Isolauro- nolic acid, C9HuO2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-3-acid-4. Campholic acid, CioHi8O2, is tetrametnyl-i-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentane acid-3. Camphononic acid, C9Hi4O3, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/0-penta- none- 1 -carboxylic acid-3. Camphorphorone, C9HuO, is methyl-2- isobuty-lene-5-cycfo-pentanone-l. Isothujone, Ci0Hi6O, is dim- ethyl-i-2-isopropyl-3-cyc/o-pentene-l-one-5. (F. W. Semmler, Ber., I9°o, 33, p. 275.) L. Bouveault and G. Blanc (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1460), prepared hydrocarbons of the eyc/o-pentane series from cyclo- hexane compounds by the exhaustive methylation process of A. W. Hofmann (see PYRIDINE). For phenyl derivatives of the cyclo- pentane group see F. R. Japp, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, pp. 139, 144; H. Stobbe, Ann., 1901, 314, p. in; 315, p. 219 seq.; 1903, 326, p. 347. Cydo-hexane Group. Hydrocarbons. — Cydo-hexane, or hexahydro benzene, C6Hi2, is obtained by the action of sodium on a boiling alcoholic solution of i •6-dibromhexane, and by passing the vapour of benzene, mixed with hydrogen, over finely divided nickel. It is a liquid with an odour like that of benzene. It boils at 80-81° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid. When heated with bromine in a sealed tube for some days at 150-200° C., it yields i-2-4'5-tetrabrombenzene (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 2803). It is stable towards halogens at ordinary temperature. Benzene hexachloride, CtH6Cls, is formed by the action of chlorine on benzene in sunlight. By recrystallization from hot benzene, the a form is obtained in large prisms which melt at 157° C., and at their boiling-point decompose into hydrochloric acid and trichlorbenzene. The /3 form results by chlorinating boiling benzene in sunlight, and may be separated from the o variety by distillation in a current of steam. It sublimes at about 310° C. Similar varieties of benzene hexabromide are known. Hexahydrocymene (methyl- i-isopropyl-4-cyc/o-hexane), CioH20, is important since it is the parent substance of many terpenes (H2<1 and a mixture of ketones (C. Mannul, Ber., 1907,40, p. 153). Methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-^, CHj-C«H9O, is prepared by the hydrolysis of pulegone. It is an optically active liquid which boils at 168-169° C. Homologues of menthone may be obtained from the ketone by successive treatment with sodium amide and alkyl halides (A. Haller, Comptes rendus, 1905, 140, p. 127). On oxidation with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) at 60-70° C., a mixture of — and — -methyl adipic acids is obtained (W. Markownikoff, Ann., 1905, 336, p. 299). It can be transformed into the isomeric methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-2 (O. Wallach, Ann., 1904, 329, p. 368). For methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-4, obtained by distilling •y-methyl pimelate with lime, see O. Wallach, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1492. Cydo-hexane-dione-l-3 (dihydroresorcin), C«H802, was obtained by G. Merling (Ann., 1894, 278, p. 28) by reducing resorcin in hot alcoholic solution with sodium amalgam. Cydo-hexane-dione- 1 -4 is obtained by the hydrolysis of succino-succinic ester. On reduction it yields quinite. It combines with benzaldehyde, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, to form 2-benzyl-hydroquinone. Cyclo- hexane-trione-i-3-5 (phloroglucin) is obtained by the fusion of many resins and of resorcin with caustic alkali. It may be prepared synthetically by fusing its dicarboxylic ester (from malonic ester and sodio malonic ester at 145° C.) with potash (C. W. Moore, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 165). It crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 218° C. With ferric chloride it gives a dark violet coloration. It exhibits tautomerization, since in many of its reactions it shows the properties of a hydroxylic substance. Rhodizonic acid (dioxydiquinoyl), C6H2O6, is probably the enolic form of an pxypentaketo-cycfo-hexane. It is formed by the reduction of triquinoyl by aqueous sulphurous acid, or in the form of its potassium salt by washing potassium hexa-oxybenzene with alcohol (R. Nietzki, Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 513, 1838). Triquinoyl (hexaketp-cyc/o-hexane) CeOe-8H2O, is formed on oxidizing rhodi- zonic acid or hexa-oxybenzene. Stannous chloride reduces it to hexa-oxybenzene, and when boiled with water it yields croconic acid (dioxy-cydo-pentene-trione) . Cydo-hexenones. — Two types of ketones are to be noted in this group, namely the o/3 and jS-y ketones, depending upon the position of the double linkage in the molecule, thus: .CH2:CH ,CH-CH,V H2C< \CO HCf >CO N:H2-CH,/ N:H2-CH/ These two classes show characteristic differences in properties. For example, on reduction with zinc and alcoholic potash, the off compounds give saturated ketones and also bi-molecular compounds, the /S? being unaffected; the 0-y series react with hydroxylamine in a normal manner, the aft yield oxamino-oximes. Melhyl-i-cydo-hexene-i-one-z, CHj-CjHvO, is obtained by condens- ing sodium aceto-acetate with methylene iodide, the ester so formed being then hydrolysed. Isocamphorphorone, C9HuO, is trimethyl i-6-6.-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Isocamphor, Ci0Hi6O, is methyl-l- isopropyl-3-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Acids. — Hexahydrobenzoic acid, C«Hn'CO2H, is obtained by the reduction of benzole acid, or by the condensation of 1-5 dibrompen- tane with disodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in small plates which melt at 30-31° C. and boil at 232-233° C. (J. C. Lumsden, Journ. Chem. _Soc., 1905, 87, p. 90). The sulphochloride of the acid on reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid gives hexahydrothiophenol, C«HnSH, a colourless oil which boils at 158-160° C. (W. Borsche, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 392). Quinic acid, C«H7(OH)4CO2H (tetra-oxy-cyc/o-hexane carboxylic acid), is found in coffee beans and in quinia bark. It crystallizes in colourless prisms and is optically active. When heated to about 250° C. it is transformed into quinide, probably a lactone, which on heating with baryta water gives an inactive quinic acid. Hexahydrophthalic acids, C«Hio(COsH)2 (cyc/o-hexanedicarboxylic acids). — Three acids of this group are known, containing the Carb- oxyl-groups in the 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 positions, and each exists in two tereo-isomeric forms (CM- and trans-). The anhydride of theciVi-2 POLYMETHYLENES A2 and A* TETRAHYDRO^- ' I Heat A 1 TETEAHYDRO Hydrobromidf OH reduction HEXAHYDRO acid, obtained by heating the anhydride of the trans-acid, forms prisms which melt at 192° C. When heated with hydrochloric acid it passes into the /rani-variety. The racemic trans-acid is produced by the reduction of the dihydrobromide of A4-tetrahydrophthalic acid or A2'6 dihydrophthalic acid. It is split into its active components by means of its quinine salt (A. Werner and H. E. Conrad, Ber., *899, 32, p. 3046). Hexahydroisophtholic acids (cyc/o-hexane-l'3- dicarboxylic acids) are obtained by the action of methylene iodide on disodio-pentane tetracarboxylic ester (W. H. Perkin, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1891, 59, p. 798); by the action of trimethylene bromide on disodio-propane tetracarboxylic ester ; and by the reduction of isophthalic acid with sodium amalgam, the tetrahydro acids first formed being converted into hydrobromides and further reduced (A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger, Ann., 1893, 276, p. 255). The cis- and trans- forms can be separated by means of their sodium salts. The (rani-acid is a racemic compound, which on heating with acetyl chloride gives the anhydride of the cii-acid. Hexahydroterephthalic acids (cydo-hexane-l-4-dicarboxylic acids). These acids are obtained by the reduction of the hydrobromides of the di- and tetra-hydroterephthalic acids or by the action of ethylene dibromide on disodio-butane tetracarboxylic acid. An important derivative is succino-succinic acid, C6H6O2(CO2H)2, or cyc/o-hexane- dione-2>5-dicarboxylic acid-1'4, which is obtained as its ester by the action of sodium or sodium ethylate on succinic ester (H. Fehling, Ann., 1844, 49, p. 192; F. Hermann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306). It crystallizes in needles or prisms, and dissolves in alcohol to form a bright blue fluorescent liquid, which on the addition of ferric chloride becomes cherry red. The acid on heating loses COa and gives cye/o-hexanedione-1'4. Tetrahydrobenzoic acid (cyc/o-hexene- I -carboxy lie acid- 1 ) , C6H9- COjH . Three structural isomers are possible. The A1 acid results on boiling the A2 acid with alkalis, or on eliminating hydro- bromic acid from i-brom-cyc/o-hexane- carboxylic acid- 1. The A2 acid is formed on the reduction of benzoic acid with sodium amalgam. The A3 acid is obtained by eliminating the elements of water from 4-oxy-cyc/o-hexane-i-carb- oxylic acid (W. H. Perkin, iun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 431). Shikimic acid (3-4'6-trioxy-A1-tetrahydrobenzoic acid) is found in the fruit of Illicium religiosum. On fusion with alkalis it yields para-oxybenzoic acid, and nas- cent hydrogen reduces it to hydro- shikimicacid. Sedanolic acid, CiaH^Os, which is found along with sedanonic acid, C^HigOa, in the higher boiling fractions of celery oil, is an ortho- oxyamyl-A6-tetrahydrobenzoic acid, sedanonic acid being ortho- valeryl-A'-tetrahydrobenzoic acid(G. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber., 1897, 30, pp. 492, 501, 1419 seq.). Sedanolic acid readily decom- poses into water and its lactone sedanolid, Ci2Hi8O2, the odorous constituent of celery oil. Telrahydrophthalic acids (cycfo-hexene dicarboxylic acids), C6HS(CO2H)2. Of the ortho-series four acids are known. The A1 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating the A2 acid to 220° C., or by distilling hydropyromellitic acid. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to adipic acid. The A2 acid is formed along with the A4 acid by reducing phthalic acid with sodium amalgam in hot solutions. The A4 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms. The /raws-variety is produced by reducing phthalic acid, and the cis-acid by reducing A2'4 dihydrophthalic acid. In the meta-series, four acids are also known. The A2 acid is formed along with the A4 (cis) acid by reducing isophthalic acid. The trans A4 acid is formed by heating the m-acid with hydrochloric acid under pressure. The A3 acid is formed when the anhydride of tetrahydro rimesic acid is distilled (W. H. Perkin, junr., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, p. 293). In the para-series, three acids are known. The A1 acid is formed by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid; by boiling the A2 acid with caustic soda; and by the reduction (in the heat) of A1'4 dihydro- terephthalic acid. The A2 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms; these are produced simultaneously in the reduction of A1'* or A1'6 dihydro- terephthalic acids by sodium amalgam. There are five possible dihydrobenzoic acids. One was obtained in the form of its amide by the reduction of benzamide in alkaline solution with sodium amalgam (A. Hutchinson, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 177). The A1'* acid is obtained on oxidizing dihydrobenzalde- hyde with silver oxide or by the reduction of meta-trimethyl- aminobenzoic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1859). Of the dihydrophthalic acids, five are known in the ortho-series, two of which are stereo-isomers of the cis- and trans-type, and a similar number are knbwn in the para-series. The A1'4 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating A2'4 dihydrophthalic anhydride with acetic anhydride. When boiled with caustic soda it isomerizes to a mixture of the A2'4 and A2's dihydrophthalic acids. The A2'4 acid is obtained by boiling the dihydrobromide of the A2'6 acid with alcoholic potash or by continued boiling of the A2'6 acid with caustic soda. The A2'6 acid is formed when phthalic acid is reduced in the cold by sodium amalgam or by heating the A2'4 and A3'5 acids with caustic soda. The (raws- modification of A3'5 acid is produced when phthalic acid is reduced by sodium amalgam in the presence of acetic acid. When heated for some time with acetic anhydride it changes to the cis-iorm. The trans-acid has been resolved by means of its strychnine salts into two optically active isomerides, both of which readily pass to A2'6 dihydrophthalic acid (A. Neville, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1906, 89, p. 1744). Of the dihydroterephthalic acids, the A1'3 acid is obtained by heat- ing the dibromide of the A2 tetrahydro acid with alcoholic potash. It cannot be prepared by a direct reduction of terephthalic acid. On warming with caustic soda it is converted into the A1'4 acid. TheA1'4 acid is also obtained by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid. It is the most stable of the dihydro acids. The A1 5 acid is obtained by boiling the cis- andirons-A2'6 acids with water, which are obtained on reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam in faintly alka- line solution. The relationships existing between the various hydrophthalic acids may be shown as follows: — Sodium amalgam (hot) Sodium amalgam + acetic acid PHTHALIC ACID Sodium Sodium amalgam (cold) amalgam (hot) • A 2-6 DIHYDRO Alkali Eydrobromide with alcoholic potash A3-5 DIHYDRO (TRANS.) J, Acetic anhydride A3-5 DIHYDRO (cis.) A2'4 DIHYDRO Anhydride with acetic anhydride AH DIHYDRO Isetttmm amalgam Sodium amalgam in faintly alkaline solution Sodium Boil with I A2-6 DlHYDRO amalgam (hot) water ( A 1-5 DlflYDRO 1 Sodium amalgam „ -. , Kan rj A 2 TETRAHYDRO- >A 1 TETRAHYDRO Reduce Dibromide 4- alcoholic potash Remove H Br from I Hydrobromifc on reduction dibromide -HEXAHYDRO Cyclo-heptane Croup. Cyclo-heptane (suberane), C7Hi4, obtained by the reduction of suberyl iodide, is a liquid which boils at 117° C. On treatment with bromine in the presence of aluminium bromide it gives chiefly pentabromtoluene. When heated with hydriodic acid to 230° C. acid thick _ _ reduction of suberyl bromide. Cyc\o-heptene, C^Hu, is obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on suberyl iodide; and from eyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid, the amide of which by the action of sodium hypobromite is converted into cyc/o-heptanamine, which, in its turn, is destructively methylated (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, 131). Cyclo-heptadiene 1-3, C7H10, is obtained from cyc/o-heptene (Willstatter, loc. cit.). It is identical with the hydrotropilidine, which results by the destructive methyla- tion of tropane. Euterpene (trimethyl-i-4-4-cyc/o-heptadiene I -5), CioHie is prepared from dihydroeucarveol. By the action of hydrobromic acid (in glacial acetic acid solution) and reduction of the resulting product it yields l-2-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene (A. v. Baeyer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2075). Cyc\o-heptatriene (tropilidine), C7H8, is formed on dis- tilling tropine with baryta; and from cyc/o-heptadiene by forming its addition product with bromine and heating this with quinoline to 150-160° C. (R. Willstatter, loc. cit.). Chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. With bromine it forms a di- bromide, which then heated to IIO° C. decomposes into hydro- bromic acid and benzyl bromide, Cyclo-heptanol, CiHupH, is formed by the reduction of suberone, and by the action of silver nitrite on the hydrochloride of cyclo- hexanamine (N. Demjanow, Centralblatt, 1904, i. p. 1214). Cyc\o-heptanone (suberone), CyH^O, is formed on the dis- tillation of suberic acid with lime, and from o-brom-cyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid by treatment with baryta and subsequent distilla- tion over lead peroxide (R. Willstatter, Ber.. -1898, 31, p. 2507). It is a colourless liquid having a peppermint odour, and boiling at I78'5-I79'5° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to n-pimelic acid. POLYNESIA 33 Tropilene, CjHioO, is obtained in small quantities by the distillation of a-methyltropine methyl hydroxide, and by the hydrolysis of 0- im-thyltropidine with dilute hydrochloric acid. It is an oily liquid, with an odour resembling that of benzaldehyde. It forms a benzal compound, and gives an oyxmethylene derivative and cannot be oxidized to an acid, reactions which point to it being a ketone con- taining the grouping -CH,-CO-. It is thus to be regarded as a cyc/o-heptene-i-one-7. Cyc\o-heptane carboxylic acid (suberanic acid), CrHuCOjH, is obtained by the reduction of cyc/o-heptene-i-carboxylic acid; from brom-cyc/o-heptane by the Grignard reaction; and by the re- duction of hydrotropilidine carboxylic acid by sodium in alcoholic solution (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2504^. The corresponding oxyacid is obtained by the hydrolysis of the nitrile, which is formed by the addition of hydrocyanic acid to suberone (A. Spiegel, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 117). Four cy«o-heptene carboxylic acids are known. Cyc\o-heptene-i- carboxylic acid-l is prepared from oxysuberanic acid. This acid when heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 120-^130° C. yields a chlor-acid, which on warming with alcoholic potash is trans- formed into the cye/o-heptene compound. Cyc\o~heptene-2-carboxylic acid-l is formed by the reduction of cyc/o-heptatriene 2-4-6-carb- oxylic acid-l. On boiling with caustic soda it isomerizes to the corresponding l-acid. Cyc\o-heptatriene carboxylic acids, CiHjCOtH. All four are known. According to F. Buchner (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2242) they may be represented as follows : — aiWorji. The a-acid (a-isophenylacetic acid) is obtained by the hydrolysis of pseudophenylacetamide, formed by condensing diazoacetic ester with benzene, the resulting pseudophenyl acetic ester being then left in contact with strong ammonia for a long time. 0-Isophenylacetic acid is formed by strongly heating pseudophenylacetic ester in an air-free sealed tube and hydrolysing the resulting 0-isophenyIacetic ester. y-Isophenylacetic acid is obtained by heating the 0 and & acids for a long time with alcoholic potash (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 2828; E. Buchner, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2249). d-Isophenyl- acetic acid is obtained by heating the iodmethylate of anhydro- ecgonine ester with dilute caustic soda (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1893, 26, P- 329). Numerous ammo-derivatives of the cyclo-heptane series have been prepared by R. Willstatter in the course of his investigations on the constitution of tropine (g.v.). Amino-cyclo-heptane (suberylamine) is obtained by the reduction of suberone oxime or by the action of sodium hypobromite on the amide of cycloheptane carboxylic acid. Cyc\o-octane Croup. Few members of this group are known. By the distillation of the calcium salt of azelaic acid H. Mayer (Ann., 1893, 275, p. 363) obtained azelain ketone, C8HUO, a liquid of peppermint odour. It boils at 90-91° C. (23 mm.) and is readily oxidized by potassium permanganate to oxysuberic acid. It is apparently cyc/o-octanone (see also W. Miller and A. Tschitschkin, Centralblatt, 1899, 2., p. 181). Pseudopelletierine (methyl granatonine), C8Hi6NO, an alkaloid of the pomegranate, is a derivative of cyc/o-octane, and resembles tropine in that it contains a nitrogen bridge between two carbon atoms. It is an inactive base, and also has ketonic properties. On oxidation it yields methyl granatic ester, which, by the exhaustive methylation process, is converted into homopipcrylene dicarboxvlic ester, HO,C-CH:CH CH, CHa CH:CH-COSH, from which suberic acid may be obtained on reduction. When reduced in alcoholic solution by means of sodium amalgam it yields methyl granatoline, CsHnOH-NCHj; this substance, on oxidation with cold potassium permanganate, is converted into granatoline, C8HuNO, which on listillation over zinc dust yields pyridine. Methyl granatoline on treatment with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, followed by caustic potash, yields methyl granatinine, C9Hi6N, which when heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 240° C. is converted into methyl granatanine, C8HU.NCH3, and granatanine, C8HUNH. The hydrochloride of the latter base when distilled over zinc dust yields o-propyl pyridine. By the electrolytic reduction of pseudopellet- icrine, W-methyl granatanine is obtained, and this by exhaustive methylation is converted into A Mes-dimethyl granatanine. This Uter compound readily forms an iodmethylate, which on treatment with silver oxide yields the corresponding ammonium hydroxide. The ammonium hydroxide on distillation decomposes into trimethyl- amine, water and cyc/o-octadiene I -3. CH.CH— CH, CH.NMe CO - CH.CH— CH, Pseudopelletierine CH2CH— CH, >CH,NMe CH, CH.-CH— CH, JV-methyl granatanine CH, — CH— CH, -»CH,HO NMe,CH, CH, CH— CH, CH.CH— CH, CH, CH— CH, CH,CH:CH CH, NMe CH,<-CH,HO NMe,CH^-CH, CH CH,CH = CH CH, — CH = CH CH, CH, CH A-4.), widely distributed throughout the world, but specially developed in the tropics. The name is derived from Gr. iroXus, many, and irodiov, a little foot, on account of the foot-like appear- ance of the rhizome and its branches. The species differ greatly in size and general appearance and in the character of the frond ; the sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on the back of the leaf, are globose and naked, that is, are not covered with a membrane (indusium) (see fig. i). The common poly- pody (fig. 2) (P. wdgare) is widely diffused in the British Isles, where it is found on walls, banks, trees, &c.; the creep- ing, densely-scaly rootstock bears deeply pinnately cut fronds, the fertile ones bear- ing on the back the bright yellow naked groups of sporangia (sori). It is also known as adder's foot, golden maidenhair and wood-fern, and is the oak- fern of the old herbals. FIG. i. — Portion of a pinna of leaf of Polypodium bearing sori, s, on its back. FIG. 2. — Polypodium vulgare, common polypody (about \ nat. size). i. Group of spore-cases (sorus) on back of leaf (X 4). There are a large number of varieties, differing chiefly in the form and division of the pinnae; var. cambricum (origin- ally found in Wales) has the pinnae themselves deeply cut into narrow segments; var. cornubiense is a very elegant plant with finely-divided fronds; var. cristatum is a handsome variety with fronds forking at the apex and the tips of all the pinnae crested and curled. P. dryopteris, generally known as oak- fern, is a very graceful plant with delicate fronds, 6 to id in. long, the three main branches of which are themselves pinnately divided; it is found in dry, shady places in mountain districts in Great Britain, but is very rare in Ireland. P. phegopteris (beechfern) is a graceful species with a black, slender root-stock, from which the pinnate fronds rise on long stalks, generally about 12 in. long, including the stalk; it is characterized by having the lower pinnae of the frond deflexed; it is generally distributed in Britain, though not common. Many other species from different parts of the world are known in green- house cultivation. POLYPUS, a term signifying a tumour which is attached by a narrow neck to the walls of a cavity lined with mucous membrane. A polypus or polypoid tumour may belong to any variety of tumour, either simple or malignant. The most com- mon variety is a polypus of the nose of simple character and easily removed. Polypi are also met with in the ear, larynx, uterus, bladder, vagina, and rectum. (See TUMOUR.) POLYTECHNIC (Gr. iroX6s, many, and T«X»"?, an art), a term which may be held to designate any institution formed with a view to encourage or to illustrate various arts and sciences. It has, however, been used with different applications in several European countries. In France the first ecole polylcchnique was founded by the National Convention at the end of the i8th century, as a practical protest against the almost exclusive devotion to literary and abstract studies in the places of higher learning. The institution is described as one " ou Ton instruit les jeunes gens, destines a entrer dans les ecoles speciales d'artillerie, du genie, des mines, des ponts et chaussees, cree en 1794 sous le nom d'ecole centrale des travaux publiques, et en 1795 sous celui qu'elle porte aujourd'hui " (Litlre). In Ger- many there are nine technical colleges which, in like manner, have a special and industrial, rather than a general educational purpose. In Switzerland the principal educational institution, which is not maintained or administered by the communal authorities, but is non-local and provided by the Federal govern- ment, is the Polytechnikum at Zurich. In all the important towns of the Federation there are trade and technical schools of a more or less special character, adapted to the local indus- tries; e.g. schools for silk-weaving, wood-carving, watchmaking, or agriculture. But the Zurich Polytechnikum has a wider and more comprehensive range of work. It is a college designed to give instruction and practical training in those sciences which stand in the closest relation to manufactures and commerce and to skilled industry in general and its work is of university rank. To the English public the word polytechnic has only recently become familiar, in connexion with some London institutions of an exceptional character. In the reign of William The First IV. there was an institution in London called after Poiyiechaks the name of his consort— " The Adelaide Gallery " >* England. — and devoted rather to the display of new scientific inven- tions and curiosities than to research or to the teaching of science. It enjoyed an ephemeral popularity, and was soon imitated by an institution called the Polytechnic in Regent Street, with a somewhat more pretentious programme, a diving- bell, electrical and mechanical apparatus, besides occasional illustrated lectures of a popular and more or less recreative character. In the popular mind this institution is inseparably associated with " Professor " Pepper, the author of The Boy's Playbook of Science and of Pepper's Ghost. Both of these institutions, after a few years of success, failed financially; and in 1880 Mr Quintin Hogg, an active and generous philan- thropist, purchased the disused building in Regent Street, and reopened it on an altered basis, though still retaining the name of Polytechnic, to which, however, he gave a new significance. He had during sixteen years been singularly successful in gathering -together young shopmen and artisans in London in the evenings and on Sunday for religious and social intercourse, and in acquiring their confidence. But by rapid degrees his enterprise, which began as an evangelistic effort, developed into an educational institution of a novel and comprehensive char- acter, with classes for the serious study of science, art, and literature, a gymnasium, library, reading circles, laboratories for physics and chemistry, conversation and debating clubs, organized country excursions, swimming, rowing, and natural history societies, a savings bank, and choral singing, besides religious services, open to all the members, though not obli- gatory for any. The founder, who from the first took the closest personal interest in the students, well describes his own aims: " What we wanted to develop our institute into was a place which should recognize that God had given man more than one side to his character, and where we could gratify any reason- able taste, whether athletic, intellectual, spiritual or social. The success of this effort was remarkable. In the first winter POLYTECHNIC 39 6800 members joined, paying fees of 35. per term, or IDS. 6d. per year; and the members steadily increased, until in 1900 they reached a total of 15,000 The average daily attendance is 4000; six hundred classes in different grades and subjects are held weekly; and upwards of forty clubs and societies have been formed in connexion with the recreative and social departments. The precedent thus established by private initiative has since :en followed in the formation of the public institutions which, under the name of " Polytechnics," have become "ti'tutioas so prominent and have exercised such beneficent this influence among the working population of London. The principal resources for the foundation and .tenance of these institutions have been derived from two nds — that administered under the City Parochial Charities .ct of 1883, and that furnished by the London County Council, first under the terms of the Local Taxation (Customs and ;cise) Act of 1890, and the Technical Instruction Act 1889, ,t since the ist of May 1904 under the Education Act 1902, as applied to London by the act of 1903. More detailed refer- ence to these two acts seems to be necessary in this place. The royal commission of inquiry into the parochial char- ities of London was appointed in 1878, mainly at the instance TheCHy °^ ^r James Bryce, and under the presidency of Parochial the Duke of Northumberland. Its report appeared Charities in iggo, giving particulars of the income of the parishes, and revealing the fact that the funds had largely outgrown the original purposes of the endowments, which were ill adapted to the modern needs of the class for ;vhose benefit they were intended. The act of parliament of 1883 was designed to give effect to the recommendations of the commissioners. It provided that while five of the largest parishes were to retain the management of their own charitable funds, the endowments of the remaining 107 parishes in the city should be administered by a corporate body, to be en- titled " the Trustees of the London Parochial Charities" (other- wise known in relation to the polytechnics as " the Central Governing Body" ), this body to include five nominees of the Crown and four of the corporation of London. The remaining members were to be chosen under a subsequent scheme of the charity commission, which added four nominees of the Lon- don County Council, two of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and one each appointed by the university of London, Univer- sity College, King's College, the City and Guilds institute, and the governing bodies of the Bishopsgate and the Cripplegate foundations. For the purpose of framing the scheme, a special commissioner, Mr James Anstie, Q.C., was temporarily attached to the charity commission, and it thus became the duty of the commission to prepare a statement of the charity property possessed by the 107 parishes, distinguishing between the secular and the ecclesiastical parts of the endowments. The annual income derived from the ecclesiastical fund was £35,000, and that from the secular portion of the fund £50,000. The scheme assigned capital grants amounting to £155,000 to the provision of open spaces, and £149,500 to various institutions, including free libraries in Bishopsgate and Cripplegate, the People's Palace, the Regent Street and Northampton Institutes, and the Victoria Hall. A capital sum of £49,355 out of the ecclesiastical fund was devoted to the repair of city churches; and the balance of the annual income of this fund, after allowances for certain vested interests, was directed to be paid to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. This balance has varied by slight increases from year to year, and amounted in 1906 to £20,875. The remaining fund thus set free for secular purposes was by the scheme largely devoted to the erection and main- tenance of polytechnic institutions, or " industrial institutes," as they were at first called. It was the opinion of Mr Anstie and his fellow-commissioners that in this way it would be possible to meet one of the most urgent of the intellectual needs of the metropolis, and to render service nearly akin to the original purposes of the obsolete charitable endowments. For the year 1906-1907 the grants made to the polytechnics and kindred institutions (the Working Men's College, College for Working Women, &c.) by the Central Governing Body amounted to £39,140, and the total amount contributed by the Central Governing Body since its creation amounts to £543,000. The general scope and aims of the institutions thus con- templated by the commissioners are defined hi the A Typlcal " general regulations for the management of an indus- Scheme trial institute," which are appended as a schedule to uaaertbe the several schemes, and which run as follows: — Act' The object of this institution is the promotion of the industrial skill, general knowledge, health and well-being of young men and women belonging to the poorer classes by the following means: — _ i. Instruction in — a. The general rules and principles of the arts and sciences applicable to any handicraft, trade or business. b. The practical application of such general rules and principles in any handicraft, trade or business. c. Branches or details of any handicraft, trade or business, facilities for acquiring the knowledge of which cannot usually be obtained in the workshop or other place of business. The classes and lectures shall not be designed or arranged so as to be in substitution for the practical experience of the workshop or place of business, but so as to be supplementary thereto. u. Instruction suitable for persons intending to emigrate. iii. Instruction in such other branches and subjects of art, science, language, literature and general knowledge as may be approved by the governing body. iv. Public lectures or courses of lectures, musical and other entertainments and exhibitions. v. Instruction and practice in gymnastics, drill, swimming and other bodily exercises. vi. Facilities for the formation and meeting of clubs and societies. vii. A library, museum and reading room or rooms. Within the limits prescribed, the governing body may from time to time, out of the funds at their disposal, provide and maintain buildings and grounds, including workshops and laboratories suit- able for all the purposes herein specified, and the necessary furniture, fittings, apparatus, models and books, and may provide or receive by gift or on loan works of art or scientific construction, or objects of interest .and curiosity, for the purpose of the institute, and for the purpose of temporary exhibition. Other provisions in the scheme require: (i) that the educa- tional benefits of the institute shall be available for both sexes equally, but that common rooms, refreshment rooms, gymnasia and swimming-baths may be established separately, under such suitable arrangements as may be approved by the governing body; (2) that the fees and subscriptions shall be so fixed as to place the benefits of the institute within the reach of the poorer classes; (3) that no intoxicating liquors, smoking or gambling shall be allowed in any part of the building; (4) that the build- ings, ground and premises shall not be used for any political, denominational or sectarian purpose, although this rule shall not be deemed to prohibit the discussion of political subjects in any debating society approved by the governing body; (5) that no person under the age of sixteen or above twenty-five shall be admitted to membership except on special grounds, and that the number thus specially admitted shall not exceed 5 % of the total number of members. These and the like provisions have formed the common basis for all the metropolitan polytechnics. In 1890 a large sum was placed by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act at the disposal of the county and county borough councils for the general purposes of tech-o/erous seaport town situated close to the seashore, from which it is now nearly 2 m. distant, and adjoining the mouth of the river Sarnus or Sarno, which now enters the sea nearly 2 m. from its site. The present course of this stream is due in part to modern alteration of its channel, as well as to the effects of the great eruption. The prosperity of Pompeii was due partly to its commerce, as the port of the neighbouring towns, partly to the fertility of its territory, which produced strong wine, olive oil (a comparatively small quantity), and vegetables; fish sauces were made here. Millstones and pumice were also exported, but for the former the more gritty lava of Rocca Monfina was later on preferred. The area occupied by the ancient city was of an irregular oval form, and about 2 m. in circumference. It was sur- rounded by a wall, which is still preserved for more than two-thirds of its extent, but no traces of this are found on the side towards the sea, and there is no doubt that on this side it had been already demolished in ancient times, so as to give room for the free extension of houses and other buildings in that direction.1 These walls are strengthened at intervals by numerous towers, occupying the full width of the wall, which occur in some parts at a distance of only about 100 yds., but in general much less frequently. They are, however, of a different style of construction from the walls, and appear to have been added at a later period, probably that of the Social War. Similar evidences of the addition of subsequent defences are to be traced also in the case of the gates, of which no less than eight are found in the existing circuit of the walls. Some of these present a very elaborate system of defence, but it is evident from the decayed condition of others, as well as of parts of the walls and towers, that they had ceased to be maintained for the purposes of fortification long before the destruction of the city. The names by which the gates and streets are known are entirely of modern origin. The general plan of the town is very regular, the streets being generally straight, and crossing one another at right angles or nearly so. But exceptions are found on the west in the street leading from the Porta Ercolanese (gate of Herculaneum) to the forum, which, though it must have been one of the principal thoroughfares in the city, was crooked and irregular, as well as verynarrow, in some parts not exceeding 12 to 14 ft. in width, including the raised footpaths on each side, which occupy a considerable part of the space, so that the carriage-way could only have admitted of the passage of one vehicle at a time. The explanation is that it follows the line of the demolished city wall. Another exception is to be found in the Strada Stabiana (Stabian Street) or Cardo, which, owing to the existence of a natural depression which affects also the line of the street just east of it, is not parallel to the other north and south streets. The other main streets are in some cases broader, but rarely exceed 20 ft. in width, and the broadest yet found is about 32, while the back streets running parallel to the main lines are only about 14 ft. (It is to be remembered, however, that the standard width of a Roman highroad in the neighbourhood of Rome itself is about 14 ft.) They are uniformly paved with large poly- gonal blocks of hard basaltic lava, fitted very closely together, though now in many cases marked with deep ruts from the passage of vehicles in ancient times. They are also in all cases bordered by raised footways on both sides, paved in a similar manner; and for the convenience of foot-passengers, which was evidently a more important consideration than the obstacle which the arrangement presented to the passage of vehicles, which indeed were probably only allowed for goods traffic, these are connected from place to place by stepping-stones raised above the level of the carriage-way. In other respects they must have resembled those of Oriental cities — the living apartments all opening towards the interior, and showing only blank walls towards 1 It consisted of two parallel stone walls with buttresses, about 15 ft. apart and 28 in. thick, the intervening space being filled with earth, and there being an embankment on the inner side. the street; while the windows were generally to be found only in the upper storey, and were in all cases small and insignificant, without any attempt at architectural effect. In some instances indeed the monotony of their external appearance was broken by small shops, occupying the front of the principal houses, and let off separately; these were in some cases numerous enough to form a continuous fagade to the street. This is seen especially in the case of the street from the Porta Ercolanese to the forum and the Strada Stabiana (or Cardo), both of which were among the most frequented thoroughfares. The streets were also diversified by fountains, small water-towers and reservoirs (of which an especially interesting example was found in 1902 close to the Porta del Vesuvio) and street shrines. The source of the water-supply is unknown. The first-mentioned of the two principal streets was crossed, a little before it reached the forum, by the street which led directly to the gate of Nola (Strada delle Terme, della Fortuna, and di Nola). Parallel to this last to the south is a street which runs from the Porta Marina through the forum, and then, with a slight turn, to the Sarno gate, thus traversing the whole area of the city from east to west (Via Marina, Strada dell' Abbondanza, Strada dei Diadumeni). These two east and west streets are the two decumani. The population of Pompeii at the time of its destruction cannot be fixed with certainty, but it may very likely have ex- ceeded 20,000. It was of a mixed character; both Oscan and Greek inscriptions are still found up to the last, and, though there is no trace whatever of Christianity, evidences of the presence of Jews are not lacking — such are a wall-painting, probably representing the Judgment of Solomon, and a scratched inscription on a wall, " Sodoma, Gomora." It has been estimated, from the number of skeletons discovered, that about 2000 persons perished in the city itself in the eruption of A.D. 79. Almost the whole portion of the city which lies to the west of the Strada Stabiana, towards the forum and the sea, has been more or less completely excavated. It is over one-half of the whole extent, and that the most important portion, inasmuch as it includes the forum, with the temples and public buildings adjacent to it, the thermae, theatres, amphitheatre, &c. The greater part of that on the other side of the Strada Stabiana remains still unexplored, with the exception of the amphi- theatre, and a small space in its immediate neighbourhood. The forum at Pompeii was, as at Rome itself and in all other Italian cities, the focus and centre of all the life and movement of the city. Hence it was surrounded on all sides by public buildings or edifices of a commanding character. It was not, however, of large size, as compared to the open spaces in modern towns, being only 467 ft. in length by 126 in breadth (excluding the colonnades). Nor was it accessible to any description of wheeled carriages, and the nature of its pavement, composed of broad flags of travertine, shows that it was only intended for foot-passengers. It was adorned with numerous statues, some of the imperial family, others of dis- tinguished citizens. Some of the inscribed pedestals of the latter have been found. It was surrounded on three sides by a series of porticos supported on columns; and these porticos were originally surmounted by a gallery or upper storey, traces of the staircases leading to which still remain, though the gallery itself has altogether disappeared. It is, however, certain from the existing remains that both this portico and the adjacent buildings had suffered severely from the earthquake of 63, and that they were undergoing a process of restoration, involving material changes in the original arrangements, which was still incomplete at the time of their final destruction. The north end of the forum, where alone the portico is wanting, is occupied in great part by the imposing temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva being also worshipped here. It was raised on a podium 10 ft. high, and had a portico with six Corinthian columns in front. This magnificent edifice had, however, been evidently overthrown by the earthquake of 63, and is in its present condition a mere ruin, the rebuilding of which had not been begun at the time of the eruption, so that the cult of POMPEII the three Capitoline divinities was then carried on in the so- called temple of Zeus Milichius. On each side of it were two arches, affording an entrance into the forum, but capable of being closed by gates. On the east side of the forum were four edifices; all of them are of a public character, but their names and attribution have been the subject of much controversy. The first (proceeding from the north), once known as the Pantheon, is generally regarded as a macellum or meat-market, consisting of a rectangular court surrounded by a colonnade, with a twelve- sided roofed building (tholus) in the centre. On the south side and Q. Catulus (78 B.C.), and therefore belongs to the Oscan period of the city, before the introduction of the Roman colony. It was an oblong edifice divided by columns into a central hall and a corridor running round all the four sides with a tribunal opposite the main entrance; and, unlike the usual basilicae, it had, instead of a clerestory, openings in the walls of the corridor through which light was admitted, it being almost as lofty as the nave. The temple was an extensive edifice, having a com- paratively small cella, raised upon a podium, and standing in the midst of a wide space surrounded by a portico of^columns, Scale. 1:7,200 Yards 50 loo 150 200 1. Tf tuple of Jupiter 8. Basilica 2. Mncellum 9. Temple of Apollo 3. Sanctuary of Lares 10. Temple of Hercules? 4. Temple of Vespasian 11. Temple of Isit 5. Building of Eumachia 12. Temple of Zeus 6. Comitium ? 13. Temple of Fortuna Augusta 7. Curia ere. 11 Temple of Venus fomatio.no. 15. Great Theatre 16. Small Theatre 17. Barracks of Gladiators 18. Palaestra 19. Tttermae near the Forum 20. Stab/an Bathi 21. Central Baths 22. House of Sallust O. House of the Vettii M. House of the. Golden Cupid* 19. Water Reservoir 26. House of Pansa n. House of the Fan* M. House of Jucundus IS. Home of the Silver Wedding n.House of the Figured Capitals IL. House of Ariadre VL House of Holconius 33.House of Cornelius Rufus U. House of the C/tharis' (Redrawn by permission from Baedeker's Southern Italy.) were shops, and in the centre of the east side a chapel for the worship of the imperial house. Next to this comes the sanctuary of the Lares of the city, a square room with a large apse; and beyond this, as Mau proves, the small temple of Vespasian. Beyond this again, bounded on the south by the street known as the Strada dell' Abbondanza, is a large and spacious edifice, which, as we learn from an extant inscription, was erected by a priestess named Eumachia. Its purpose is uncertain— possibly a cloth-exchange, as the fullers set up a statue to Eumachia here. It is an open court, oblong, surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade; in front is a portico facing the forum, and on the other three sides theie is a corridor behind the colonnade with windows opening on it. On the south side of the Strada dell' Abbondanza was a building which Mau conjectures to have been the Comitium. At the south end of the forum are three halls side by side, similar in plan with a common facade — the central one, the curia or council chamber, the others the offices respec- tively of the duumvirs and aediles, the principal officials of the city; while the greater part of the west side is occupied by two large buildings — a basilica, which is the largest edifice in Pompeii, and the temple of Apollo, which presents its side to the forum, and hence fills up a large portion of the surrounding space. The former, as we learn from an inscription scratched on its walls, was anterior in date to the consulship of M. Lepidus Enxry W.lktf tc. outside which again is a wall, bounding the sacred enclosure. Between this temple and the basilica the Via Marina leads off direct to the Porta Marina. Besides the temples which surrounded the forum, the remains of five others have been discovered, three of which are situated in the immediate neighbourhood of the theatres. Of these by far the most interesting, though the least perfect, is one which is commonly known as the temple of Hercules (an appellation wholly without foundation), and which is not only by far the most ancient edifice in Pompeii, but presents us with all the characters of a true Greek temple, resembling in its proportions that of the earliest temple of Selinus, and probably of as remote antiquity (6th century B.C.). Unfortunately only.the. foundation and a few Doric capitals and other architectural fragments remain; they were coated with stucco which was brightly painted. In front of the temple is a monument which seems to have been the tomb of the founder or founders of the city; so that for a time this must have been the most important temple. The period of its destruction is unknown, for it appears certain that it cannot be ascribed wholly to the earthquake of 63. On the other hand the reverence attached to it in the later periods of the city is evidenced by its being left standing in the midst of a triangular space adjoining the great theatre, which is surrounded by a portico, so as to constitute a kind of forum (the so-called Foro POMPEII 53 Triangolare). Not far off, and to the north of the great theatre, stood a small temple, which, as we learn from the inscription still remaining, was dedicated to Isis, and was rebuilt by a certain Popidius Celsinus at the age of six (really of course by his parents), after the- original edifice had been reduced to ruin by the great earthquake of 63. Though of small size, and by no means re- markable in point of architecture, it is interesting as the only temple that has come down to us in a good state of preservation of those dedicated to the Egyptian goddess, whose worship became so popular under the Roman Empire. The decorations were of somewhat gaudy stucco. The plan is curious, and deviates much from the ordinary type; the internal arrangements are adapted for the performance of the peculiar rites of this deity. Close to this temple was another, of very small size, commonly known as the temple of Aesculapius, but probably dedicated to Zeus Milichius. More considerable and important was a temple which stood at no great distance from the forum at the point where the so-called Strada di Mercurio was crossed by the wide line of thoroughfare (Strada delta Fortuna) leading to the gate of Nola. We learn from an inscription that this was dedicated to the Fortune of Augustus (Fortuna Augusta), and was erected, wholly at his own cost, by a citizen of the name of M. Tullius. This temple appears to have suffered very severely from the earthquake, and at present affords little evidence of its original architectural ornament; .but we learn from existing remains that its walls were covered with slabs of marble, and that the columns of the portico were of the same material. The fifth temple, that of Venus Pompeiana, lay to the west of the basilica; traces of two earlier periods underlie the extant temple, which was in progress of rebuilding at the time of the eruption. Before the earthquake of 63 it must have been the largest and most splendid temple of the whole city. It was surrounded by a large colonnade, and the number of marble columns in the whole block has been reckoned at 206. All the temples above described, except that ascribed to Her- cules, which was approached by steps on all four sides, agree in being raised on an elevated podium or basement — an arrange- ment usual with all similar buildings of Roman date. Neither in materials nor in style does their architecture exceed what might reasonably be expected in a second-rate provincial town; and the same may be said in general of the other public buildings. Among these the most conspicuous are the theatres,'of which there were two, placed, as was usual in Greek towns, in close juxta- position with one another. The largest of these which was partly excavated in the side of the hill, was a building of considerable magnificence, being in great part cased with marble, and fur- nished with seats of the same material, which have, however, been almost wholly removed. Its internal construction and arrangements resemble those of the Roman theatres in general, though with some peculiarities that show Greek influence, and we learn from an inscription that it was erected in Roman times by two members of the same family, M. Holconius Rufus and M. Holconius Celer, both of whom held important municipal offices at Pompeii during the reign of Augustus. It appears, however, from a careful examination of the remains that their work was only a reconstruction of a more ancient edifice, the date of the original form of which cannot be fixed; while its first alteration belongs to the " tufa " period, and three other periods in its history can be traced. Recent investigations in regard to the vexed question of the position of the actors in the Greek theatre have as yet not led to any certain solution.1 The smaller theatre, which was erected, as we learn from an inscription, by two magistrates specially appointed for the purpose by the decuriones of the city, was of older date than the large one, and must have been constructed a little before the amphitheatre, soon after the establishment of the Roman colony under Sulla. We learn also that it was permanently covered, and it was probably used for musical entertainments, but in the case of the larger theatre also the arrangements for the occasional extension of an awning (velarium) over the whole are distinctly found. The 1 See A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 150 sqq. smaller theatre is computed to have been capable of containing fifteen hundred spectators, while the larger could accommodate five thousand. Adjoining the theatres is a large rectangular enclosure, sur- rounded by a portico, at first the colonnade connected with the theatres, and converted, about the time of Nero, into the barracks of the gladiators, who were permanently maintained in the city with a view to the shows in the amphitheatre. This explains why it is so far from that building, which is situated at the south-eastern angle of the town, about 500 yds. from the theatres. Remains of gladiators' armour and weapons were found in some of the rooms, and in one, traces of the slocks used to confine insubordinate gladiators. The amphitheatre was erected by the same two magistrates who built the smaller theatre, C. Quinctius Valgusand M. Porcius (the former the father- in-law of that P. Servilius Rullus, in opposition to whose bill relating to the distribution of the public lands Cicero made his speech, De lege agraria), at a period when no permanent edifice of a similar kind had yet been erected in Rome itself, and is indeed the oldest structure of the kind known to us. But apart from its early date it has no special interest, and is wholly wanting in the external architectural decorations that give such grandeur of character to similar edifices in other instances. Being in great part excavated in the surface of the hill, instead of the seats being raised on arches, it is wanting also in the picturesque arched corridors which contribute so much to the effect of those other ruins. Nor are its dimensions (460 by 345 ft.) such as to place it in the first rank of structures of this class, nor are there any underground chambers below the arena, with devices for raising wild beasts, &c. But, as we learn from the case of their squabble with the people of Nuceria, the games celebrated in the amphitheatre on grand occasions would be visited by large numbers from the neighbouring towns. The seating capacity was about 2o,ooo2 (for illustration see AMPHITHEATRE). Adjoining the amphitheatre was found a large open space, nearly square in form, which has been supposed to be a forum boarium or cattle-market, but, no buildings of interest being discovered around it, the excavation was filled up again, and this part of the city has not been since examined. Between the entrance to the triangular forum (so-called) and the temple of Isis is the Palaestra, an area surrounded by a colonnade; it is a structure of the pre-Roman period, intended for boys, not men. Among the more important public buildings of Pompeii were the public] baths (thermae). Three different establishments of this character have been discovered, of which the first, exca- vated in 1824, the baths near the forum, built about 80 B.C., was for a long time the only one known. Though the smallest of the three, it is in some respects the most complete and interesting; and it was until of late years the principal source from which we derived our knowledge of this important branch of the economy of Roman life. At Pompeii the baths are so well preserved as to show at a glance the purpose of all the different parts — while they are among the most richly decorated of all the buildings in the city. We trace without difficulty all the separate apart- ments that are described to us by Roman authors — the apody- terium, frigidarium, tepidarium, caldarium, &c. together with the apparatus for supplying both water and heat, the places for de- positing the bather's clothes, and other minor details (see BATHS). The greater thermae (the so-called " Stabian " baths), which were originally built in the and century B.C., and repaired about 80 B.C., are on a much more extensive scale than the others, and combine with the special purposes of the building a palaestra in the centre and other apartments for exercise or recreation. The arrangements of the baths themselves are, however, almost similar to those of the lesser thermae. In this case an inscription records the repair and restoration of the edifice after the 1 The interest taken by the Pompeians in the sports of the amphitheatre is shown by the contents of the numerous painted and scratched inscriptions relating tc them which have been found, in Pompeii — notices of combats, laudatory inscriptions, including even references to the admiration which gladiators won from the fair sex, &c. 54 POMPEII earthquake of 63. It appears, however, that these two establish- ments were found inadequate to supply the wants of the in- habitants, and a third edifice of the same character, the so- called central baths, at the corner of the Strada Stabiana and the Strada di Nola, but on a still more extensive scale, intended for men only, while the other two had separate accommodation for both sexes, was in course of construction when the town was overwhelmed. Great as is the interest attached to the various public buildings of Pompeii, and valuable as is the light that they have in some instances thrown upon similar edifices in other ruined cities, far more curious and interesting is the insight afforded us by the numerous private houses and shops into the ordinary life and habits of the population of an ancient town. The houses at Pompeii are generally low, rarely exceeding two storeys in height, and it appears certain that the upper storey was generally of a slight construction, and occupied by small rooms, serving as garrets, or sleeping places for slaves, and perhaps for the females of the family. From the mode of destruction of the city these upper floors were in most cases crushed in and destroyed, and hence it was long believed that the houses 'for the most part had but one storey; but recent researches have in many cases brought to light incontestable evidence of the existence of an upper floor, and the frequent occurrence of a small staircase is in itself sufficient proof of the fact. The windows, as already mentioned, were generally small and insignificant, and contri- buted nothing to the external decoration or effect of the houses, which took both light and air from the inside, not from the outside. In some cases they were undoubtedly closed with glass, but its use appears to have been by no means general. The principal living rooms, as well as those intended for the reception of guests or clients, were all on the ground floor, the centre being formed by the atrium, or hall, which was almost always open above to the air, and in the larger houses was gener- ally surrounded with columns. Into this opened other rooms, the entrances to which seem to have been rarely protected by doors, and could only have been closed by curtains. At the back was a garden. Later, under Greek influences, a peristyle with rooms round it was added in place of the garden. We notice that, as in modern Italy until quite recent years, elaborate precautions were taken against heat, but none against cold, which was patiently endured. Hypocausts are only found in connexion with bathrooms. All the apartments and arrangements described by Vitruvius and other ancient writers may be readily traced in the houses of Pompeii, and in many instances these have for the first time enabled us to understand the technical terms and details trans- mitted to us by Latin authors. We must not, however, hastily assume that the examples thus preserved to us by a singular accident are to be taken as representing the style of building in all the Roman and Italian towns. We know from Cicero that Capua was remarkable for its broad streets and widespread buildings, and it is probable that the Campanian towns in general partook of the same character. At Pompeii indeed the streets were not wide, but they were straight and regular, and the houses of the better class occupied considerable spaces, presenting in this respect no doubt a striking contrast, not only with those of Rome itself, but with those of many other Italian towns, where the buildings would necessarily be huddled to- gether from the circumstances of their position. Even at Pompeii itself, on the west side of the city, where the ground slopes somewhat steeply towards the sea, houses are found which consisted of three storeys or more. The excavations have provided examples of houses of every description, from the humble dwelling-place of the artisan or proletarian, with only three or four small rooms, to the stately mansions of Sallust, of the Faun, of the Golden Cupids, of the Silver Wedding, of the Vettii, of Pansa,1 &c. — -the last of which is among the most regular in plan, and may be taken as an almost 1 It may be observed that the names given in most cases to the houses are either arbitrary or founded in the first instance upon erroneous inferences. perfect model of a complete Roman house of a superior class. But the general similarity in their plan and arrangement is very striking, and in all those that rise above a very humble class the leading divisions of the interior, the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, &c. may be traced with unfailing regularity. Another peculi- arity that is found in all the more considerable houses in Pompeii is that of the front, where it faces one of the principal streets, being occupied with shops, usually of small size, and without any communication with the interior of the mansion. In a few instances indeed such a communication is found, but in these cases it is probable that the shop was used for the sale of articles grown upon the estate of the proprietor, such as wine, fruit, oil, &c., a practice that is still common in Italy. In general the shop had a very small apartment behind it, and probably in most cases a sleeping chamber above it, though of this the only remaining evidence is usually a portion of the staircase that led to this upper room. The front of the shop was open to the street, but was capable of being closed with wooden shutters, the remains of which have in a few instances been preserved. Not only have the shops of silversmiths been recognized by the precious objects of that metal found in them, but large quantities of fruits of various kinds preserved in glass vessels, various de- scriptions of corn and pulse, loaves of bread, moulds for pastry, fishing-nets and many other objects too numerous to mention, have been found in such a condition as to be identified without difficulty. Inns and wine-shops appear to have been numerous; one of the latter we can see to have been a thermopolmm, where hot drinks were sold. Bakers' shops are also frequent, though arrangements for grinding and baking appear to have formed part of every large family establishment. In other cases, how- ever, these were on a larger scale, provided with numerous querns or hand-mills of the well-known form, evidently intended for public supply. Another establishment on a large scale was a fullonica (fuller's shop), where all the details of the business were illustrated by paintings still visible on the walls. Dyers' shops, a tannery and a shop where colours were ground and manufactured — an important business where almost all the rooms of every house were painted — are of special interest, as is also the house of a surgeon, where numerous surgical instru- ments were found, some of them of a very ingenious and elaborate description, but all made of bronze. Another curious discovery was that of the abode of a sculptor, containing his tools, as well as blocks of marble and half-finished statues. The number of utensils of various kinds found in the houses and shops is almost endless, and, as these are in most cases of bronze, they are generally in perfect preservation. Of the numerous works of art discovered in the course of the excavations the statues and large works of sculpture, whether in marble or bronze, are inferior to those found at Herculaneum, but some of the bronze statuettes are of exquisite workmanship, while the profusion of ornamental works and objects in bronze and the elegance of their design, as well as the finished beauty of their execution, are such as to excite the utmost admiration — more especially when it is considered that these are the casual results of the examination of a second-rate provincial town, which had, further, been ransacked for valuables (as Hercu- laneum had not) after the eruption of 79. The same impression is produced in a still higher degree by the paintings with which the walls of the private houses, as well as those of the temples and other public buildings, are adorned, and which are not merely of a decorative character, but in many instances present us with elaborate compositions of figures, historical and mythological scenes, as well as representations of the ordinary life and manners of the people, which are full of interest to us, though often of inferior artistic execution. It has until lately been the practice to remove these to the museum at Naples; but the present tendency is to leave them (and even the movable objects found in the houses) in situ with all due precautions as to their preservation (as in the house of the Vettii, of the Silver Wedding, of the Golden Cupids, &c.), which adds im- mensely to the interest of the houses; indeed, with the help of judicious restoration, their original condition is in large POMPEII 55 measure reproduced.1 In some cases it has even been possible to recover the original arrangement of the garden beds, and to replant them accordingly, thus giving an appropriate frame- work to the statues, &c. with which the gardens were decorated, and which have been found in situ. The same character of elaborate decoration, guided almost uniformly by good taste and artistic feeling, is displayed in the mosaic pavements, which in all but the humbler class of houses frequently form the ornament of their floors. One of these, in the House of the Faun, well known as the battle of Alexander, presents us with the most striking specimen of artistic com- position that has been preserved to us from antiquity. The architecture of Pompeii must be regarded as presenting in general a transitional character from the pure Greek style to that of the Roman Empire. The temples (as already observed) have always the Roman peculiarity of being raised on a podium of considerable elevation; and the same characteristic is found in most of the other public buildings. All the three orders of Greek architecture — the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian — are foun'd freely employed in the various edifices of the city, but rarely in strict accordance with the rules of art in their proportions and details; while the private houses naturally exhibit still more deviation and irregularity. In many of these indeed we find varieties in the ornamentation, and even in such leading features as the capitals of the columns, which remind one rather of the vagaries of medieval architecture than of the strict rules of Vitruvius or the regularity of Greek edifices. One practice which is especially prevalent, so as to strike every casual visitor, and dates from the early years of the empire, is that of filling up the flutings of the columns for about one-third of their height with a thick coat of stucco, so as to give them the appearance of being smooth columns without flutings below, and only fluted above. The unpleasing effect of this anomalous arrangement is greatly aggravated by the lower part of each column being almost always coloured with red or yellow ochre, so as to render the con- trast between the two portions still stronger. The architecture of Pompeii suffers also from the inferior quality of the materials generally employed. No good building stone was at hand; and the public as well as private edifices were constructed either of volcanic tufa, or lava, or Sarno limestone, or brick (the latter only used for the corners of walls). In the private houses even the columns are mostly of brick, covered merely with a coat of stucco. In a few instances only do we find them making use of a whitish limestone wrongly called travertine, which, though inferior to the similar material so largely employed at Rome, was better adapted than the ordinary tufa for purposes where great solidity was required. The portion of the portico sur- rounding the forum which was in the process of rebuilding at the time when the city was destroyed was constructed of this material, while the earlier portions, as well as the principal temples that adjoined it, were composed in the ordinary manner of volcanic tufa. Marble appears to have been scarce, and was sparingly employed. In some instances where it had been freely introduced, as in the great theatre, it would seem that the slabs must have been removed at a period subsequent to the entombment of the city. These materials are used in several different styles of con- struction belonging to the six different periods which Mau traces in the architectural history of Pompeii. 1 . That of the Doric temple in the Foro Triangolare (6th century B.C.) and an old column built into a house in Region vi., Insula 5; also of the older parts of the city walls — date uncertain (Sarno limestone and grey tufa). 2. That of the limestone atriums (outer walls of the houses of ashlar-work of Sarno limestone, inner walls with framework of limestone blocks, filled in with small pieces of limestone). Date, before 200 B.C. 3. Grey tufa period ; ashlar masonry of tufa, coated with fine white stucco; rubble work of lava. The artistic character is still Greek, and the period coincides with the first (incrustation) style of mural decoration, which (probably originating in Alexandria) aimed at 1 The paintings of the house of the Vettii are perhaps the best-preserved in Pompeii, and extremely fine in conception and execution, especially the scenes in which Cupids take part. the imitation in stucco of the appearance of a wall veneered with coloured marbles. No wall paintings exist, but there are often fine floor mosaics. To this belong a number of private houses (e.g. the House of the Faun), and the colonnade round the forum, the basilica, the temples of Apollo and Jupiter, the large theatre with the colonnades of the Foro Triangoiare, and the barracks of the gladiators, the Stabian baths, the Palaestra, the exterior of the Porta Marina, and the interior of the other gates— all the public buildings indeed (except the Doric temple mentioned under (l), which do not belong to the time of the Roman colony). Date, 2nd century B.C. 4. The quasi-reticulate" period — walling faced with masonry not yet quite so regular as opus reticulatum, and with brick quoins, coinciding with the second period of decoration (the architectural, partly imitating marble like the first style, but without relief, and by colour only, and partly making use of architectural designs). It is represented by the small theatre and the amphitheatre, the baths near the forum, the temple of Zeus Milichius, the Comitium and the original temple of Isis, but only a few private houses. The ornamentation is much less rich and beautiful than that of the preceding period. Date, from 80 B.C. until nearly the end of the Republic. 5. The period from the last decades of the Republic to the earthquake of A.D. 63. No homogeneous series of buildings — we find various styles of construction (quasi-reticulate, opus reticulatum of tufa with stone quoins, of the time of Augustus, opus reticulatum with brick quoins or with mingled stone and brick quoins, a little later); and three styles of wall decoration fall within its limits. The second, already mentioned, the third or ornate, with its freer use of ornament and its introduction of designs which suggest an Egyptian origin (originating in the time of Augustus), and the fourth or intricate, dating from about A.D. 50. Marble first appears as a building material in the temple of Fortuna Augusta (c. 3 B.C.). 6. The period from the earthquake of A.D. 63 to the final de- struction of the city, the buildings of which can_ easily be recognized. The only wholly new edifice of any importance' is the central baths. Outside the Porta Ercolanese, or gate leading to Herculaneum, is found a house of a different character from all the others, which from its extent and arrangements was undoubtedly a suburban villa, belonging to a person of considerable fortune. It is called — as usual without any authority — the villa of Arrius Diomedes; but its remains are of peculiar interest to us, not only for comparison with the numerous ruins of similar buildings which occur else- where— often of greater extent, but in a much less perfect state of preservation — but as assisting us in understanding the description of ancient authors, such as Vitruvius and Pliny, of the numerous appurtenances frequently annexed to houses of this description. In the cellar of this villa were discovered no less than twenty skeletons of the unfortunate inhabitants, who had evidently fled thither for protection, and fourteen in other parts of the house. Almost all the skeletons and remains of bodies found in the city were discovered in similar situations, in cellars or underground apartments — those who had sought refuge in flight having appar- ently for the most part escaped from destruction, or having perished under circumstances where their bodies were easily recovered by the survivors. According to Cassius Dio, a large number of the inhabitants were assembled in the theatre at the time of the catas- trophe, but no bodies have been found there, and they were probably sought for and removed shortly afterwards. Of late years it has been found possible in many cases to take casts of the bodies found — a complete mould having been formed around them by the fine white ashes, partially consolidated by water. An interesting farm-house (few examples have been so far dis- covered in Italy) is that at Boscoreale excavated in 1893-1894, which contained the treasure of one hundred and three silver vases now at the Louvre. The villa of P. Fannius Synhistor, not far off, was excavated in 1900; it contained fine wall paintings, which, despite their importance, were allowed to be exported, and sold by auction in Paris (some now in the Louvre). (See F. Barnabei, La Villa pompeiana di P. Fannio Sinistore; Rome, 1901.) The road leading from the Porta Ercolanese towards Herculaneum is bordered on both sides for a considerable extent by rows of tombs, as was the case with all the great roads leading into Rome, and in- deed in all large Roman towns. These tombs are in many instances monuments of considerable pretension, and of a highly ornamental character, and naturally present in the highest degree the peculiar advantage common to all that remains of Pompeii, in their perfect preservation. Hardly any scene even in this extraordinary city is more striking than the coup d'oeil of this long street of tombs, preserving uninjured the records of successive generations eighteen centuries ago. Unfortunately the names are all otherwise unknown ; but we learn from the inscriptions that they are for the most part those of local magistrates and municipal dignitaries of Pompeii. Most of them belong to the early empire. There appears to have been in the same quarter a considerable suburb, outside the gate, extending on each side of the road towards Herculaneum, apparently much resembling those which are now found throughout almost the whole distance from thence to Naples. It was known by the name of Pagus Augustus Felix POMPEY Suburbanus. Other suburbs were situated at the harbour and at the saltworks (salinae). No manuscripts have been discovered in Pompeii. Inscriptions have naturally been found in considerable numbers, and we are indebted to them for much information concerning the municipal arrangements of the town, as well as the construction of various edifices and other public works. The most interesting of these are such as are written in the Oscan dialect, which appears to have continued in official use down to the time when the Roman colony was introduced by Sulla. From that time the Latin language was certainly the only one officially employed, though Oscan may have still been spoken by a portion at least of the population. Still more curious, and almost peculiar to Pompeii, are the numerous writings painted upon the walls, which have generally a semi- public character, such as recommendations of candidates for muni- cipal offices, advertisements, &c., and the scratched inscriptions (graffiti), which are generally the mere expression of individual impulse and feeling, frequently amatory, and not uncommonly conveyed in rude and imperfect verses. In one house also a whole box was found filled with written tablets — diptychs and triptychs — containing the record of the accounts of a banker named L. Caecilius Jucundus. See A. Mau, Pompeii: its Life and Art (trans, by F. W. Kelsey, 2nd ed., New York and London, 1902; 2nd revised edition of the German original, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, Leipzig, 1908), the best general account written by the greatest authority on the subject, to which our description owes much, with full references to other sources of information; and, for later excavations, Notizie degli Scavi and Romische Mitteilungen (in the latter, articles by Mau), passim. For the inscriptions on the tablets and on the walls, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. iv. (ed. Zangemeister and Mau). Recent works on the Pompeian frescoes are those of Berger, in Die Maltechnik des Alterthums, and A. P. Laurie, Creek and Roman Methods of Painting (1910). (E. H. B. ; T. As.) Oscan Inscriptions. — The surviving inscriptions which can be dated, mainly by the gradual changes in their alphabet, are of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., some certainly belonging to the Gracchan period. The oldest of the Latin inscriptions are C.I.L. x. 794, the record of the building of colonnades in the forum by the " quaestor " V. Popidius, and two or three election placards (C.I.L. iv. 29, 30, 36) of one R. Caecilius, a candidate for the same office. It cannot be an accident that the alphabet of these inscriptions belongs distinctly to Sullan or pre-Sullan times, while no such officer as a quaestor appears in any later documents (e.g. in C.I.L. x. 844, it is the duoviri who build the small theatre), but does appear in the Oscan inscrip- tions. Hence it has been inferred that these oldest Latin inscrip- tions are also older than Sulla's colony; if so, Latin must have been in use, and in fairly common use (if the programmata were to be of any service), in Pompeii at that date. On the other hand, the good condition of many of the painted Oscan inscrip- tions at the times when they were first uncovered (1797 onwards) and their subsequent decay and the number of Oscan graffiti appear to make it probable that at the Christian era Oscan was still spoken in the town. The two languages undoubtedly existed side by side during the last century B.C., Latin being alone recognized officially and in society, while Oscan was preserved mainly by intercourse with the country folk who frequented the market. Thus beside many Latin programmala later than those just mentioned we have similar inscriptions in Oscan, addressed to Oscan-speaking voters, where Illlner. obviously relates to the quattuorvirate, a title characteristic of the Sullan and triumviral colonies. An interesting stone containing nine cavities for measures of capacity found in Pompeii and now preserved in the Naples Museum with Oscan inscriptions erased in antiquity shows that the Oscan system of measurement was modified so as to correspond more closely with the Roman, about 14 B.C., by the duoviri, who record their work in a Latin inscription (C.I.L. x. 793; for the Oscan see Hal. Dial. p. 67). , See further OSCA LINGUA, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 54 sqq.; Nissen, Pompeianische Studien; J. Beloch, Campanien, and ed. (R. S. C.) POMPEY, the common English form of Pompeius, the name of a Roman plebeian family. i. GNAEUS POMPEIUS (106-48 B.C.), the triumvir, the first of his family to assume the surname MAGNUS, was born on the 30th of September in the same year as Cicero. When only seventeen he fought together with his father in the Social War. He took the side of Sulla against Marius and Cinna, but for a time, in consequence of the success of the Marians, he kept in the background. On the return of Sulla from the Mithradatic War Pompey joined him with an army of three legions, which he had raised in Picenum. Thus early in life he connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy, and a decisive victory which he won in 83 over the Marian armies gained for him from Sulla the title of Imperator. He followed up his successes in Italy by defeating the Marians in Sicily and Africa, and on his return to Rome in 81, though he was still merely an eques and not legally qualified to celebrate a triumph, he was allowed by general consent to enjoy this distinction, while Sulla greeted him with the surname of Magnus, a title he always retained and handed down to his sons. Latterly, his relations with Sulla were somewhat strained, but after his death he resisted the attempt of the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus to repeal the constitution. In conjunction with A. Lutatius Catulus, the other consul, he defeated Lepidus when he tried to march upon Rome, and drove him out of Italy (77). With some fears and misgivings the senate permitted him to retain the command of his victorious army, and decided on sending him to Spain, where the Marian party, under Sertorius, was still formidable. Pompey was fighting in Spain from 76 to 71, and though at first he met with serious reverses he was ultimately successful. After Sertorius had fallen a victim to assassination, Pompey easily defeated his successor Perperna and put an end to the war. In 71 he won fresh glory by finally crushing the slave insurrection of Spartacus. That same year, amid great popular enthusiasm, but without the hearty concurrence of the senate, whom he had alarmed by talking of restoring the dreaded power of the tribunes, he was elected with M. Licinius Crassus to the consulship, and entered Rome in triumph (December 31) for his Spanish victories. He was legally ineligible for the consulship,' having held none of the lower offices of state and being under age. The following year saw the work of Sulla undone; the tribunate was restored, and the administration of justice was no longer left exclusively to the senate, but was to be shared by it with the wealthier portion of the middle class, the equites (q.v.) and the tribuni aerarii.1 The change was really necessary, as the provincials could never get justice from a court composed of senators, and it was carried into effect by Pompey with Caesar's aid. Pompey rose still higher in popularity, and on the motion of the tribune Aulus Gabinius in 67 he was entrusted with an extraordinary command over the greater part of the empire, specially for the extermination of piracy in the Mediterranean, by which the corn supplies of Rome were seriously endangered, while the high prices of provisions caused great distress. He was completely successful; the price of corn fell immediately on his appointment, and in forty days the Mediterranean was cleared of the pirates. Next year, on the proposal of the tribune Manilius, his powers were still further extended, the care of all the provinces in the East being put under his control for three years together with the conduct of the war against Mithradates VI., who had recovered from the defeats he had sustained from Lucullus and regained his dominions. Both Caesar and Cicero supported the tribune's proposal, which was easily carried in spite of the interested opposition of the senate and the aristocracy, several of whom held provinces which would now be practically under Pompey's command. The result of Pompey's operations was eminently satisfactory. The wild tribes of the Caucasus were cowed by the Roman arms, and Mithradates himself fled across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (modern Kertch). In the years 64 and 63 Syria and Palestine were annexed to Rome's empire. After the capture of Jerusalem Pompey is said to have entered the Temple, and even the Holy of Holies. Asia and the East generally were left under the subjection of petty kings who were mere vassals of Rome. Several cities had been founded which became centres of Greek life and civilization. Pompey, now in his forty-fifth year, returned to Italy in 61 to 1 Their history and political character is obscure; they were at any rate connected with the knights (see AERARIUM). POMPEY 57 celebrate the most magnificent triumph which Rome had ever witnessed, as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia (see A. Holm, Hist, of Greece, Eng. trans., vol. iv.). This triumph marked the turning-point of his career. As a soldier everything had gone well with him; as a politician he was a failure. He found a great change in public opinion, and the people indifferent to his achievements abroad. The optimates resented the extra- ordinary powers that had been conferred upon him; Lucullus and Crassus considered that they had been robbed by him of the honour of concluding the war against Mithradates. The senate refused to ratify the arrangements he made in Asia or to provide money and lands for distribution amongst his veterans. In these circumstances he drew closer to Caesar on his return from Spain, and became reconciled to Crassus. The result was the so-called first triumvirate (see ROME: History). The remainder of his life is inextricably interwoven with that of Caesar. He was married to Caesar's daughter Julia, and as yet the relations between the two had been friendly. On more than one occasion Caesar had supported Pompey's policy, which of late had been in a decidedly democratic direction. Pompey was now in fact ruler of the greater part of the empire, while Caesar had only the two provinces of Gaul. The control of the capital, the supreme command of the army in Italy and of the Mediterranean fleet, the governorship of the two Spains, the superintendence of the corn supplies, which were mainly drawn from Sicily and Africa, and on which the vast population of Rome was wholly dependent, were entirely in the hands of Pompey, who was gradually losing the confidence of all political parties in Rome. The senate and the aristocracy disliked and distrusted him, but they felt that, should things come to the worst, they might still find in him a champion of their cause. Hence the joint rule of Pompey and Caesar was not unwillingly accepted, and anything like a rupture between the two was greatly dreaded as the sure beginning of anarchy throughout the Roman world. With the deaths of Pompey's wife Julia (54) and of Crassus (53) the relations between him and Caesar became strained, and soon afterwards he drew closer to what we may call the old conservative party in the senate and aristocracy. The end was now near, and Pompey blundered into a false political position and an open quarrel with Caesar. In 50 the senate by a very large majority revoked the extraordinary powers conceded to Pompey and Caesar in Spain and Gaul respectively, and called upon them to disband their armies. Pompey's refusal to submit gave Caesar a good pretext for declaring war and marching at the head of his army into Italy. At the beginning of the contest the advantages were decidedly on the side of Pompey, but the superior political tact of his rival, combined with extraordinary promptitude and decision in following up his blows, soon turned the scale against him. Pompey's cause, with that of the senate and aristocracy, was finally ruined by his defeat in 48 in the neighbourhood of the Thessalian city Pharsalus. That same year he fled with the hope of finding a safe refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously murdered by one of his old centurions as he was landing. He was five times married, and three of his children survived him — Gnaeus, Sextus, and a daughter Pompeia. Pompey, though he had some great and good qualities, hardly deserved his surname of " the Great." He was certainly a very good soldier, and is said to have excelled in all athletic exercises, but he fell short of being a first-rate general. He won great successes in Spain and more especially in the East, but for these he was no doubt partly indebted to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman he had really none. As plainly appeared in the last years of his life, he was too weak and irresolute to choose a side and stand by it. But to his credit be it said that in a corrupt time he never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion, and his domestic life was pure and simple. AUTHORITIES. — Ancient: Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Casstus; Appian; Velleius Paterculus; Caesar, De hello civtli; Strabo xii., 555-s6o- Cicero, passim; Lucan, Pharsalia. Modern: Histories of Rome in general (see ROME: Ancient History, ad fin.); works quoted under CAESAR and CICERO. Also G. Boissicr, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., A. D. Jones, 1897); J. L. Strachan-Davidson's Cicero (1894); Warde Fowler's Julius Caesar (1892); C. VV. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (1902); notes in Tyrrell and Purser's Correspondence of Cicero (see index in vii. 80). 2. GNAEUS POMPEIUS, surnamed Strabo (squint-eyed), Roman statesman, father of the triumvir. He was successively quaestor in Sardinia (103 B.C.), praetor (94), propraetor in Sicily (93) and consul (89). He fought with success in the Social War, and was awarded a triumph for his services. Probably towards the end of the same year he brought forward the law (lex Pompeia de Gallia Transpadana), which conferred upon the inhabitants of that region the privileges granted to the Latin colonies. During the civil war between Marius and Sulla he seems to have shown no desire to attach himself definitely to either side. He certainly set out for Rome from the south of Italy (where he remained as proconsul) at the bidding of the aristocratic party, when the city was threatened by Marius and Cinna, but he displayed little energy, and the engage- ment which he fought before the Colline gate, although hotly contested, was indecisive. Soon afterwards he was killed by lightning (87). Although he possessed great military talents, Pompeius was the best-hated general of his time -owing to his cruelty, avarice and perfidy. His body was dragged from the bier, while being conveyed to the funeral pile, and treated with the greatest indignity. See Plutarch, Pompey, i; Appian, Bell. civ. i. 50, 52, 66-68, 80; Veil. Pat. ii. 21 ; Livy, Epit. 74-79; Florus iii. 18. 3. GNAEUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (c. 75-45 B.C.), the elder son of the triumvir. In 48 B.C. during the civil war he commanded his father's fleet in the Adriatic. After the battle of Pharsalus he set out for Africa with the remainder of the Pompeian party, but, meeting with little success, crossed over to Spain. Having been joined by his brother Sextus, he collected a considerable army, the numbers of which were increased by the Pompeians who fled from Africa after the battle of Thapsus (46). Caesar, who regarded him as a formidable opponent, set out against him in person. A battle took place at Munda on the I7th of March 45, in which the brothers were defeated. Gnaeus managed to make his escape after the engagement, but was soon (April 12) captured and put to death. He was generally unpopular owing to his cruelty and violent temper. See Pseudo-Oppius, Bellum hispaniense, 1-39; Lucan, Pharsalia, ix. 120; Dio Cassius xliii. 28-40. 4. SEXTUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (75-35 B.C.), the younger son of the triumvir. After his father's death he continued the struggle against the new rulers of the Roman Empire. From Cyprus, where he had taken refuge, he made his way to Africa, and after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus (46) crossed over to Spain. After Caesar's victory at the battle of Munda (45), in which he took no actual part, he abandoned Corduba (Cordova), though for a time he held his ground in the south, and defeated Asinius Pollio, the governor of the province. In 43, the year of the triumvirate of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, he was proscribed along with the murderers of Caesar, and, not daring to show himself in Italy, he put himself at the head of a fleet manned chiefly by slaves or proscribed persons, with which he made himself master of Sicily, and from thence ravaged the coasts of Italy. Rome was threatened with a famine, as the corn supplies from Egypt and Africa were cut off by his ships, and it was thought prudent to negotiate a peace with him at Misenum (39) , which was to leave him in possession of Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea, provided he would allow Italy to be freely supplied with corn. But the arrangement could not be carried into effect, as Sextus renewed the war and gained some considerable successes at sea. However, in 36 his fleet was defeated and destroyed by Agrippa at Naulochus off the north coast of Sicily. After his defeat he fled to Mytilene, and from there to Asia Minor. In the attempt to make his way to Armenia he was taken prisoner by Antony's troops, and put to death at Miletus. Like his father, he was a brave soldier, but a man of little culture. POMPIGNAN— POMPTINE MARSHES See Dio Cassius, xlvi-xlix. ; Appian, Bell. civ. iv. 84-117, v. 2-143; Veil. Pat. ii. 73-87; Plutarch, Antony; Livy, Epit. 123 128, 129, 131; Cicero, Philippica, xiii., and many references in Letters to Atticus. POMPIGNAN, JEAN JACQUES LEFRANC, MARQUIS DE (1700- 1784), French poet, was born on the i7th of August 1709, al Montauban, where his father was president of the cour d.es aides and the son, who also followed the profession of the law, suc- ceeded in 1745 to the same charge. The same year he was also appointed conseiller d'honneur of the parlement of Toulouse but his courageous opposition to the abuses of the royal power especially in .the matter of taxation, brought down upon him so much vexation that he resigned his positions almost immedi- ately, his marriage with a rich woman enabling him to devote himself to literature. His first play, Didon (1734), which owec much to Metastasio's opera on the same subject, gained a great success, and gave rise to expectations not fulfilled by the Adieux de Mars (i 735) and some light operas that followed. His reputa- tion was made by Poesies sacrees et philosophiques (1734), much mocked at by Voltaire who punned on the title: " Sacres Us sont, car personne n'y louche." Lefranc's odes on profane sub- jects hardly reach the same level, with the exception of the ode on the death of J. B. Rousseau, which secured him entrance to the Academy (1760). On his reception he made an ill-con- sidered oration violently attacking the Encyclopaedists, many of whom were in his audience and had given him their votes. Lefranc soon had reason to repent of his rashness, for the epigrams and stories circulated by those whom he had attacked made it impossible for him to remain in Paris, and he took refuge in his native town, where he spent the rest of his life occupied in making numerous translations from the classics, none of great merit. La Harpe, who is severe enough on Lefranc in his correspondence, does his abilities full justice in his Cours litteraire, and ranks him next to J. B. Rousseau among French lyric poets. With those of other 18th-century poets his works may be studied in the Petits ponies franfais (1838) of M. Prosper Poitevin. His (Euvres com- pletes (4 vols.) were published in 1781, selections (2 vols.) in 1800, 1813, 1822. His brother, JEAN GEORGES LEFRANC DE POMPIGNAN (1715- 1790), was the archbishop of Vienne against whose defence of the faith Voltaire launched the good-natured mockery of Les Letlres d'un Quaker. Elected to the Estates General, he passed over to the Liberal side, and led the 149 members of the clergy who united with the third estate to form the National Assembly. He was one of its first presidents, and was minister of public worship when the civil constitution was forced upon the clergy. POMPONAZZI, PIETRO (PETRUS POMPONATIUS) (1462-1525), Italian philosopher, was born at Mantua on the i6th of Sep- tember 1462, and died at Bologna on the i8th of May 1525. His education, begun at Mantua, was completed at Padua, where he became doctor of medicine in 1487. In 1488 he was elected extraordinary professor of philosophy at Padua, where he was a colleague of Achillini, the Averroist. From about 1495 to 1509 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy until the closing of the schools of Padua, when he took a professorship at Ferrara where he lectured on the De anima. In 1512 he was invited to Bologna where he remained till his death and where he produced ah1 his important works. The predominance of medical science at Padua had cramped his energies, but at Ferrara, and even more at Bologna, the study of psychology and theological speculation were more important. In 1516 he produced his great work De immortalilate animi, which gave rise to a storm of controversy between the orthodox Thomists of the Catholic Church, the Averroists headed by Agostino Nifo, and the so-called Alexandrist School. The treatise was burned at Venice, and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of death at the hands of the Catholics. Two pamphlets followed, the Apologia and the Defensorium, wherein he explained his paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic materialist. His last two treatises, the De incantationibus and the De fato, were posthumously published in an edition of his works printed at Basel. Pomponazzi is profoundly interesting as the herald of the Renaissance. He was born in the period of transition when scholastic formalism was losing its hold over men both in the Church and outside. Hitherto the dogma of the Church had been based on Aristotle as interpreted by Thomas Aquinas. So close was this identification that any attack on Aristotle, or even an attempt to reopen the old discussions on the Aristo- telian problems, was regarded as a dangerous heresy. Pom- ponazzi claimed the right to study Aristotle for himself, and devoted himself to the De anima with the view of showing that Thomas Aquinas had entirely misconceived the Aristotelian theory of the active and the passive intellect. The Averroists had to some extent anticipated this attitude by their contention that immortality does not imply the eternal separate existence of the individual soul, that the active principle which is common to all men alone survives. Pomponazzi's revolt went further than this. He held, with Alexander of Aprodisias, that, as the soul is the form of the body (as Aquinas also asserted), it must, by hypothesis, perish with the body; form apart from matter is unthinkable. The ethical consequence of such a view is important, and in radical contrast to the practice of the period. Virtue can no longer be viewed solely in relation to reward and punishment in another existence. A new sanction is required. Pomponazzi found this criterion in TOV /caXoO evtKa —virtue for its own sake. " Praemium essentiale virtutis est ipsamet virtus quae hominem felicem facit," he says in the De immorlalilale. Consequently, whether or not the soul be im- mortal, the ethical criterion remains the same: " Neque aliquo pacto declinandum est a virtute quicquid accidat post mortem." In spite of this philosophical materialism, Pomponazzi declared his adherence to the Catholic faith, and thus established the principle that religion and philosophy, faith and knowledge, may be diametrically opposed and yet coexist for the same thinker. This curious paradox he exemplifies in the De incanta- tione, where in one breath he sums up against the existence of demons and spirits on the basis of the Aristotelian theory of the cosmos, and, as a believing Christian, asserts his faith in their existence. In this work he insists emphatically upon the orderly sequence of nature, cause and effect. Men grow to maturity and then decay; so- religions have their day and succumb. Even Christianity, he added (with the usual proviso that he is speaking as a philosopher) was showing indications of decline. See A. H. Douglas, Philosophy and Psychology of Pietro Pompo- nazzi (1910); also Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie; J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy; Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans, by James H. Tufts, pt. 4, c. l); J. Burckhardt, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien; L. Ferri, La Psicologia di P. Pom- ponazzi. (j. M. M.) POMPONIUS, LUCIUS, called Bononiensis from his birthplace Bononia, Latin comic poet, flourished about 90 B.C. (or earlier). He was the first to give an artistic form to the Atellanae Fabulae by arranging beforehand the details of the plot which had hitherto been left to improvisation, and providing a written text. The fragments show fondness for alliteration and playing upon words, skill in the use of rustic and farcical language, and a considerable amount of obscenity. Fragments in O. Ribbeck, Scenicae romanorum poesis fragmenla (1897-1898); see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. iv. ch. 13; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), § 151. POMPOSA, an abbey of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 2 m. from Codigoro, which is 30 m. E. of Ferrara in the delta of the Po. The fine church, a work of the loth (?) century, with interesting sculptures on the facade and a splendid Roma- nesque campanile, contains a good mosaic pavement, and interest- ng frescoes of the i4th century— a " Last Judgment " of the school of Giotto and others; and there are also paintings in the refectory. It was abandoned in 1550 on account of malaria. See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902). (T. As.) POMPTINE MARSHES, a low tract of land in the province of iome, Italy, varying in breadth between the Volscian mountains and the sea from 10 to 16 m., and extending N.W. to S.E. from PONANI— PONCHIELLI 59 Velletri to Terracina (40 m.). In ancient days this low tract was fertile and well-cultivated, and contained several prosperous cities (Sue.ssa Pometia, Ulubrae — perhaps the mod. Cisterna — &c.), but, owing to the dying out of the small proprietors, it had already become unhealthy at the end of the Republican period. Attempts to drain the marshes were made by Appius Claudius in 312 B.C., when he constructed the Via Appia through them (the road having previously followed a devious course at the foot of the Volscian mountains), and at various times during the Roman period. A canal ran through them parallel to the road, and for some reason that is not altogether clear it was used in preference to the road during the Augustan period. Trajan repaired the road, and Theodoric did the same some four hundred years later. But in the middle ages it had fallen into disrepair. Popes Boniface VIII., Martin V., Sixtus V., and Pius VI. all attempted to solve the problem, the last-named reconstructing the road admirably. The difficulty arises from the lack of fall in the soil, some parts no less than 10 m. from the coast being barely above sea-level, while they are separated from the sea by a series of sand-hills now covered with forest, which rise at some points over 100 ft. above sea-level. Springs also rise in the district, and the problem is further complicated by the flood-water and solid matter brought down by the mountain torrents, which choke up the channels made. By a law passed in 1899, the proprietors are bound to arrange for the safe outlet of the water from the mountains, keep the exist- ing canals open, and reclaim the district exposed to inundation, within a period of twenty-four years. The sum of £280,000 has been granted towards the expense by the government. See T. Berti, Paludi pontine (Rome, 1884); R. de la Blanchere, Un Chapitre d'histoire pontine (Paris, 1889). (T. As.) PONANI, a seaport on the west coast of India, in Malabar district, Madras, at a mouth of a river of the same name. Pop. (1901), 10,562. It is the headquarters of the Moplah or Map- pilla community of Mahommedans, with a religious college and many mosques, one of which is said to date from 1510. There is a large export of coco-nut products. PONCA, a tribe of North-American Indians of Siouan stock. They were originally part of the Omaha tribe, with whom they lived near the Red River of the North. They were driven westward by the Dakotas, and halted on the Ponca river, Dakota. After a succession of treaties and removals they were placed on a reservation at the mouth of the Niobrara, where they were prospering, when their lands were forcibly taken from them, and they were removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). During the march thither and in their new quarters, the tribe's health suffered, so that in 1878 they revolted and made their way back to the Omahas. They were recaptured, but public attention having been drawn to their hard case they were liberated in 1880, after a long trial, which resulted in their being declared United States citizens. They number some 700, mostly in Oklahoma. PONCE, a seaport and the second largest city of Porto Rico, the seat of government of the Department of Ponce, on the south coast, about 50 m. (84 m. by the military road) S.W. of San Juan. Pop. (1899), 27,952, of whom 2554 were negroes and 9942 of mixed races; (1910), 35,027. It is served by the American Railroad of Porto Rico, by a railway to Guayama (1910), and by steamboats from numerous ports; an old military road connects it with San Juan. Ponce consists of two parts: Ponce, or the city proper, and Ponce Playa, or the seaport ; they are separated by the Portuguese River and ate connected by an electric street railway. Ponce Playa is on a spacious bay and is accessible to vessels drawing 25 ft. of water; Ponce is 2 m. inland at the interior margin of a beautiful plain, with hills in the rear rising to a height of 1000 to 2000 ft. The city is supplied with water by an aqueduct about 2 m. long. There are two attractive public squares in the heart of the city: Plaza Principal and Plaza de las Delicias. Among prominent public buildings are the city hall, the custom-house, the Pearl theatre, several churches — Roman Catholic (including a finely decorated cathedral) and Protestant; St Luke's hospital and insane asylum, an asylum for the blind, a ladies' asylum, a home for the indigent and aged, and a military barracks. At the Quintana Baths near the city are thermal springs with medicinal properties. The surrounding country is devoted chiefly to the cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, oranges and cacao, and to the grazing of cattle. Among the manufactures are sugar, molasses, rum, and ice, and prepared coffee for the market. Ponce, named in honour of Ponce de Leon, was founded in 1752 upon the site of a settlement which had been established in the preceding century, was incorporated as a town in 1848, and was'made a city in 1878. PONCELET, JEAN VICTOR (1788-1867), French mathe- matician and engineer, was born at Metz on the ist of July 1788. From 1808 to 1810 he attended the £fole poly technique, and afterwards, till 1812, the £cole d'applicalion at Metz. He then became lieutenant of engineers, and took part in the Russian campaign, during which he was taken prisoner and was confined at Saratov on the Volga. It was during his imprison- ment here that, " priv6 de toute espece de livres et de secours, surtout distrait par les malheurs de ma patrie et les miens propres," as he himself puts it, he began his researches on pro- jective geometry which led to his great treatise on that subject. This work, the Traile des proprieties projectiles des figures, which was published in 1822 (zd ed., 2 vols. 1865-1866), is occupied with the investigation of the projective properties of figures (see GEOMETRY). This work entitles Poncelet to rank as one of the greatest of those who took part in the development of the modern geometry of which G. Monge was the founder. From 1815 to 1825 he was occupied with military engineering at Metz; and from 1825 to 1835 he was professor of mechanics at the £cole d'applicalion there. In 1826, in his Mimoire sur les roues hydrauliques a aubes courbes, he brought forward im- provements in the construction of water-wheels, which more than doubled their efficiency. In 1834 he became a member of the Academic; from 1838 to 1848 he was professor to the faculty of sciences at Paris, and from 1848 to 1850 comman- dant of the £cole poly technique. At the London International Exhibition of 1851 he had charge of the department of machinery, and wrote a report on the machinery and tools on view at that exhibition. He died at Paris on the 23rd of December 1867. See J. Bertrand, Aloge historique de Poncelet (Paris, 1875). PONCHER, ETIENNE DE (1446-1524), French prelate and diplomatist. After studying law he was early provided with a prebend, and became councillor at the parlement of Paris in 1485 and president of the Chambre des Enquetes in 1498. Elected bishop of Paris in 1503 at the instance of Louis XII., he was entrusted by the king with diplomatic missions in Germany and Italy. After being appointed chancellor of the duchy of Milan, he became keeper of the seals of France in 1512, and retained that post until the accession of Francis I., who employed him on various diplomatic missions. Poncher became archbishop of Sens in 1519. His valuable Constitutions synodales was published in 1514. PONCHIELLI, AMILCARE (1834-1886), Italian musical composer, was born near Cremona on the ist of September 1834. He studied at the Milan Conservatoire. His first dramatic work, written in collaboration with two other composers, was // Sindaco Babbeo (1851). After completing his studies at Milan he returned to Cremona, where his opera / Promessi sposi was produced in 1856. This was followed by La Savoyards (1861, produced in a revised version as Line in 1877), Roderigo, re dei Goti (1864), and La Stella del monte (1867). A revised version of I Promessi sposi, which was produced at Milan in 1872, was his first genuine success. After this came a ballet, Le Due Gemelle (1873), and an opera, I Liluani (1874, produced in a revised version as Alduna in 1884). Ponchielli reached the zenith of his fame with La Gioconda (1876), written to a libretto founded by Arrigo Boito upon Victor Hugo's tragedy, Angela, Tyran de Padoue. La Gioconda was followed by // Figliuol prodigo (1880) and Marion Delorme (1885). Among his less 6o PONCHO— PONIARD important works are II Parlatore eterno, a musical farce (1873), and a ballet, Clarina (1873). In 1881 Ponchielli was made maestro di cappella of Piacenza Cathedral. His music shows the influence of Verdi, but at its best it has a distinct value of its own, and an inexhaustible flow of typically Italian melody. His fondness for fanciful figures in his accompaniments has been slavishly imitated by Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and many of their contemporaries. Ponchielli died at Milan on the i7th of January 1886. PONCHO (a South American Spanish word, adopted from the Araucanian poncho or pontho in the i7th century), a form of cloak worn originally by the South American Indians, and afterwards adopted by the Spaniards living in South America. It is merely a long strip of cloth, doubled, with a hole for the head. POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836), English astronomer-royal, was born about 1767 in London, where his father made a fortune in trade. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of sixteen, but took no degree, his course being interrupted by severe pulmonary attacks which compelled a long residence abroad. In 1800 he settled at Westbury near Bristol, and began to determine star-places with a fine altitude and azimuth circle of 25 ft. diameter by E. Troughton. His demonstration in 1806 (Phil. Trans, xcvi. 420) of a change of form in the Greenwich mural quadrant led to the introduction of astro- nomical circles at the Royal Observatory, and to his own appoint- ment as its head. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on the 26th of February 1807; he married and went to live in London in the same year, and in 1811 succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal. During an administration of nearly twenty-five years Pond effected a reform of practical astronomy in England comparable to that effected by Bessel in Germany. In 1821 he began to employ the method of observation by reflection; and in 1825 he devised means (see Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. ii. 499) of combin- ing two mural circles in the determination of the place of a single object, the one serving for direct and the other for reflected vision. Under his auspices the instrumental equipment at Greenwich was completely changed, and the number of assis- tants increased from one to six. The superior accuracy of his determinations was attested by S. C. Chandler's discussion of them in 1894, in the course of his researches into the variation of latitude (Astron. Journ. Nos. 313, 315). He persistently con- troverted (1810-1824) the reality of J. Brinkley's imaginary star-parallaxes (Phil. Trans, cviii. 477, cxiii. 53). Delicacy of health compelled his retirement in the autumn of 1835. He died at Blackheath on the 7th of September 1836, and was buried beside Halley in the churchyard of Lee. The Copley medal was conferred upon him in 1823, and the Lalande prize in 1817 by the Paris Academy, of which he was a corresponding member. He published eight folio volumes of Greenwich Observations, translated Laplace's Systeme du monde (in 2 vols. 8vo., 1809), and contributed thirty -one papers to scientific collections. His catalogue of 1112 stars (1833) was of great value. See Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. x. 357; Proc. Roy. Soc. iii. 434; Penny Cyclopaedia (De Morgan); F. W. Bessel, Pop. Vorlesungen, p. 543; Report Brit. Assoc. i. 128, 136 (Airy); Sir G. Airy's Autobiography, p. 127; Observatory, xiii. 204, xxii. 357; Annual Biography and Obituary (1837); R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astron. p. 491 ; Royal Society's Cat. Scient. Papers. POND, a small pool or body of standing water, a word often applied to one for which the bed has been artificially constructed. The word is a variant of " pound " (q.v.), an enclosure. PONDICHERRY, the capital of the French possessions in India, situated on the Coromandel or western coast, 122 m. by rail S. of Madras. The territory, which is entirely surrounded by the British district of South Arcot, has an area of 115 sq. m. with a population (1901) of 174,456. The chief crops are dry grains, rice, earth-nuts and a little indigo. The territory is traversed by a branch of the South Indian railway from Villa- puram. The town has a population of 27,448. It is well laid out with fine public buildings; the water-supply is derived from artesian wells. It has an open roadstead, with a small iron pier. The port is visited yearly by 500 vessels, and has trade of the value of about some £1,300,000. The principal imports are areca-nuts, wines and liqueurs, and the chief exports ground- nuts, oil, cotton fabrics and rice. Of the export trade more than one-half is with France, but of the import trade only one- fourth. The weaving of various fabrics forms the principal industry. Pondicherry was founded in 1683 by Francois Martin, on the site of a village given him by the governor of Gingee. In 1693 the Dutch took Pondicherry, but restored it, with the fortifica- tions greatly improved, in 1697, at the peace of Ryswick. In 1748 Admiral Boscawen laid siege to. it without success, but in 1761 it was taken by Colonel Coote from Lally. In 1763 it was restored to the French. In 1778 it was again taken by Sir Hector Munro, and its fortifications destroyed. In 1783 it was retransf erred to the French, and in 1793 recaptured by the English. The treaty of Amiens in 1802 restored it to the French, but it was retaken in 1803. In 1816 it was finally restored to the French. PONDO, a Kaffir people who have given their name to Pondo- land, the country comprising much of the seaboard of Kaffraria, Cape province, immediately to the south-west of Natal. The Pondo, who number about 200,000, are divided into several tribal groups, but the native government, since the annexation of the country to Cape Colony in 1894, has been subject to the control of the colonial authorities. (See KAFFIRS.) PONDWEED, a popular name for Potamogeton nalans, a cosmopolitan aquatic plant found in ponds, lakes and ditches, with broad, more or less oblong-ovate, olive-green, floating leaves. The name is also applied to other species of Potamo- geton, one of the characteristic genera of lakes, ponds and streams all over the world, but more abundant in temperate regions. It is the principal genus of the natural order of Monocotyledous Potamogetonaceae, and contains plants with slender branched stems, and submerged and translucent, or floating and opaque, alternate or opposite leaves, often with membranous united stipules. The small flowers are borne above the water in (After Wossidlo. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik.) Potamogeton natans. • 1, Apex of flowering shoot. 3, Flower viewed from the side. 2, Flower viewed from above. 4, Diagram of flower. axillary or terminal spikes; they have four stamens, which bear at the back four small herbaceous petal-like structures, and four free carpels, which ripen to form four small green fleshy fruits, each containing one seed within a hard inner coat; the seed contains a large hooked embryo. An allied genus Zannichellia (named after Zanichelli, a Venetian botanist), occurring in fresh and brackish ditches and pools in Britain, and also widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions, is known as horned pondweed, from the curved fruit. PONIARD, a dagger, particularly one of small size, used for stabbing at close quarters. The French word poignard, from PONIATOWSKI— PONS 61 which the English is a 16th-century adaptation, is formed from poing, fist, the clenched hand in which the weapon is grasped. (See DAGGER.) PONIATOWSKI, the name of a Polish princely family of Italian origin, tracing descent from Giuseppe Torelli, who married about 1650 an heiress of the Lithuanian family of Poniator, whose name he assumed. The first of the Poniatowskis to distinguish himself was STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1677-1762), who only belonged to the family by adoption, being the reputed son of Prince Sapieha and a Jewess. He was born at Dereczyn in Lithuania, and was adopted by Sapieha's intendant, Poniatowski. With his father he attached himself to the party of Stanislaus Leszczynski, and became major-general in the army of Charles XII. of Sweden. After the defeat of Pultowa he conveyed Charles XII. across the Dnieper, and remained with him at Bender. From there he was sent to Constantinople, where he extracted from the sultan Achmet III. a promise to march to Moscow. When the grand vizier, Baltagi Mehemet, permitted the tsar Peter I. to retreat unharmed from the banks of the Pruth, Poniatowski exposed his treason. He rejoined Leszczynski in the duchy of Zweibriicken, Bavaria, of which he became governor. After the death of Charles XII. in 1718 he visited Sweden; and was subsequently reconciled with Leszczynski's rival on the throne of Poland, Augustus II., who made him grand treasurer of Lithuania in 1724. On the death of Augustus II. he tried to secure the reinstatement of Leszczynski, who then resumed his claims to the Polish crown. He was taken prisoner at Danzig by the Russians, and presently gave his allegiance to Augustus III., by whom he was made governor of Cracow. He died at Ryki on the 3rd of August 1762. His second son Stanislaus Augustus became king of Poland (see STANISLAUS II.). Of the other sons, Casimir (1721-1780) was his brother's chancellor; Andrew (1735-1773) entered the Austrian service, rising to the rank of feldzeugmeister; and Michael (1736-1794) became archbishop of Gnesen and primate of Poland. Joseph Anthony Poniatowski (q.i).}, son of Andrew, became one of Napoleon's marshals. STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1757-1833), son of Casimir, shared in the aggrandisement of the family during the reign of Stanislaus II., becoming grand treasurer of Lithuania, starost of Podolia and lieutenant-general of the royal army. In 1793 he settled in Vienna, and subsequently in Rome, where he made a magnificent collection of antique gems in his house on the Via Flaminia. This collection was sold at Christie's in London in May 1839. He died in Florence on the I3th of February 1833, and with him the Polish and Austrian honours became extinct. His natural, but recognized, son, JOSEPH MICHAEL XAVTER FRANCIS JOHN PONIATOWSKI (1816-1873), w»s born at Rome and in 1847 was naturalized as a Tuscan subject. He received the title of prince in Tuscany (1847) and in Austria (1850). He had studied music under Ceccherini at Florence, and wrote numerous operas, in the first of which, Giovanni di Procida, he sang the title rdle himself at Lucca in 1838. He represented the court of Tuscany in Paris from 1848, and he was made a senator by Napoleon III., whom he followed to England in 1871. His last opera, Gelmina, was produced at Covent Garden in 1872. He died on the 3rd of July 1873, and was buried at Chislehurst. His son, Prince Stanislaus Augustus, married and settled in Paris. He was equerry to Napoleon III., and died in January 1908. PONIATOWSKI, JOSEPH ANTHONY (1763-1813), ^ Polish prince and marshal of France, son of Andrew PoniatowskiVnd the countess Theresa Kinsky, was born at Warsaw in 1763. Adopt- ing a military career, he joined the Imperial army when Austria declared war against the Turks in 1788, and distinguished himself at the storming of Sabac on the 25th of April, where he was seriously wounded. Recalled by his uncle King Stanis- laus when the Polish army was reorganized, he received the rank of major-general, and subsequently that of lieutenant-general, and devoted himself zealously to the improvement of the national forces. In 1789, when Poland was threatened by the armed intervention of Russia, he was appointed commander of the Ukraine division at Braclaw on Bug. After the proclama- tion of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 he was appointed commander-in-chief, with instructions to guard the banks of the Dniester and Dnieper. On the outbreak of the war with Russia, Prince Joseph, aided by Kosciuszko, displayed great ability. Obliged constantly to retreat, but disputing every point of vantage, he turned on the pursuer whenever he pressed too closely, and won several notable victories. At Polonna the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 3000 men; at Dubienka the line of the Bug was defended for five days against fourfold odds; at Zielence the Poles won a still more signal victory. Finally the Polish arms converged upon Warsaw, and were preparing for a general engagement when a courier from the capital informed the generals that the king had acceded to the confederation of Targowica (see POLAND: History) and had at the same time guaranteed the adhesion of the army. All hostilities were therefore to be suspended. After an indig- nant but fruitless protest, Poniatowski and most of the other generals threw up their commissions and emigrated. During the Kosciuszko rising he again fought gallantly for his country under his former subordinate, and after the fall of the republic resided as a private citizen at Warsaw for the next ten years. After Jena and the evacuation of the Polish provinces by Prussia, Poniatowski was offered the command of the National Guard; he set about reorganizing the Polish army, and on the creation of the grand duchy of Warsaw was nominated war minister. During the war of 1809, when an Austrian army corps under the archduke Ferdinand invaded the grand duchy, Poniatowski encountered them at the bloody battle of Radzyn, and though compelled to abandon Warsaw ultimately forced the enemy to evacuate the grand duchy, and captured Cracow. In Napoleon's campaign against Russia in 1812 Poniatowski commanded the fifth army corps; and after the disastrous retreat of the grand army, when many of the Poles began to waver in their allegiance to Napoleon, Poniatowski remained faithful and formed a new Polish army of 13,000 men with which he joined the emperor at Lutzen. In the campaign of 1813 he guarded the passes of the Bohemian mountains and defended the left bank of the Elbe. As a reward for his brilliant services at the three days' battle of Leipzig he was made a marshal of France and entrusted with the honourable but dangerous duty of covering the retreat of the army. Poniatowski heroically defended Leipzig, losing half his corps in the attempt, finally falling back slowly upon the bridge over the Elster which the French in the general confusion blew up before he reached it. Contesting every step with the overwhelming forces of the pursuers, he refused to surrender, and covered with wounds plunged into the river, where he died fighting to the last. His relics were conveyed to Poland and buried in Cracow Cathedral, where he lies by the side of Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Jan Sobieski. Poniatowski's M es souvenirs sur la campagne de 1792 (Lemberg, 1863) is a valuable historical document. See Stanislaw Kostka Boguslawski, Life of Prince Joseph Ponia- towski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1831); Franciszek Paszkowski, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Cracow, 1808); Correspondence of Poniatowski (ed. E. Raczynski, Posen, 1843); Bronislaw Dembinski, Stanislaus Augustus and Prince Joseph Poniatowski in the light of their Corre- spondence (Fr.; Lemberg, 1904); Szymon Askenazy, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1905). (R. N. B.) PONS, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1831), French astronomer, was born at Peyres (Hautes Alpes) on the 24th of December 1761. He entered the Marseilles observatory in 1789, and in 1819 became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near Lucca, which he left in 1825 for the observatory of the museum at Florence. Here he died on the i4th of October 1831. Between 1801 and 1827 Pons discovered thirty-seven comets, one of which (observed on the 26th of November 1818) was named after J. F. Encke, who determined its remarkably short period. See M. R. A. Henrion, Annuaire biographique, i. 288 (Paris, 1834); Memoirs Roy. Astron. Soc. v. 410; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 709; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. lit. Handwdrterbuch. PONSARD— PONTANUS PONSARD, FRANQOIS (1814-1867), French dramatist, was born at Vienne, department of Isere, on the ist of June 1814. He was bred a lawyer, and his first performance in literature was a translation of Manfred (1837). His play Lucrece was represented at the Thedtre Francois on the ist of April 1843. This date is a kind of epoch in literature and dramatic history, because it marked a reaction against the romantic style of Dumas and Hugo. He received in 1845 the prize awarded by the Academy for a tragedy " to oppose a dike to the waves of romanticism." Ponsard adopted the liberty of the romantics with regard to the unities of time and place, but he reverted to the more sober style of earlier French drama. The tastes and capacities of the greatest tragic actress of the day, Rachel, suited his methods, and this contributed greatly to his own popularity. He followed up Lucrece with Agnes de Meranie (1846), Charlotte Corday (1850), and others. Ponsard accepted the empire, though with no very great enthusiasm, and received the post of librarian to the senate, which, however, he soon resigned, fighting a bloodless duel with a journalist on the subject. L'Honneur el I'argent, one of his most successful plays, was acted in 1853, and he became an Academician in 1855. For some years he did little, but in 1866 he obtained great success with Le Lion amoureux, another play dealing with the revolutionary epoch. His Galilee, which excited great opposition in the clerical camp, was produced early in 1867. He died in Paris on the 7th of July of the same year, soon after his nomination to the commandership of the Legion of Honour. Most of Ponsard's plays hold a certain steady level of literary and dramatic ability, but his popularity is in the main due to the fact that his appearance coincided with a certain public weariness of the extravagant and unequal style of 1830. His CEuvres completes were published in Paris (3 vols., 1865- 1876). See La Fin du theatre romantique et Francois Ponsard d'apres des documents inedits (1899), by C. Latreille. PONSONBY, JOHN (1713-1789), Irish politician, second son of Brabazon Ponsonby, ist earl of Bessborough, was born on the 2gth of March 1713. In 1739 he entered the Irish parliament and in 1744 he became first commissioner of the revenue; in 1746 he was appointed a privy councillor, and in 1756 Speaker of the Irish House of Commons. Belonging to one of the great families which at this time monopolized the government of Ireland, Ponsonby was one of the principal " undertakers," men who controlled the whole of the king's business in Ireland, and he retained the chief authority until the marquess Townshend became lord-lieutenant in 1767. Then followed a struggle for supremacy between the Ponsonby faction and the party dependent on Townshend, one result of this being that Ponsonby resigned the speakership in 1771. He died on the I2th of December 1789. His wife was Elizabeth, daughter of William Cavendish, 3rd duke of Devonshire, a connexion which was of great importance to the Ponsonbys. Ponsonby's third son, George Ponsonby (1755-1817), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born on the 5th of March 1755 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. A barrister, he became a member of the Irish parliament in 1776 and was chancellor of the Irish exchequer in 1782, afterwards taking a prominent part in the debates on the question of Roman Catholic relief, and leading the opposition to the union of the parliaments. After 1800 Ponsonby represented Wicklow and then Tavistock in the united parliament; in 1806 he was lord chancellor of Ireland, and from 1808 to 1817 he was the official leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. He left an only daughter when he died in London on the 8th of July 1817. George Ponsonby's elder brother, William Brabazon Ponsonby, ist Baron Ponsonby (1744-1806), was also a leading Whig politician, being a member of the Irish, and after 1800, of the British parliament. In 1806 shortly before his death he was created Baron Ponsonby of Imokilly. Three of his sons were men of note. The eldest was John (c. 1770-1855), who succeeded to the barony and was created a viscount in 1839; he was ambassador at Constantinople from 1832 to 1837 and at Vienna from 1846 to 1850. The second son was Major- General Sir William Ponsonby (1772-1815), who, after serving in the Peninsular War, was killed at the battle of Waterloo whilst leading a brigade of heavy cavalry. Another son was Richard Ponsonby (1772-1853), bishop of Derry. Sir William Ponsonby's posthumous son William (1816-1861) became 3rd Baron Ponsonby on the death of his uncle John, Viscount Ponsonby; he died childless and was succeeded by his cousin William Brabazon Ponsonby (1807-1866), only son of the bishop of Derry, on whose death the barony of Ponsonby became extinct. Among other members of this family may be mentioned Major- General Sir Frederick Cavendish Ponsonby (1783-1837), son of the 3rd earl of Bessborough, a soldier who distinguished himself at the battles of Talavera, Salamanca and Vittoria, in the Peninsular War, and was wounded at Waterloo; he was governor of Malta from 1826 to 1835. His eldest son, Sir Henry Frederick Ponsonby (1825-1895), a soldier who served in the Crimea, is best remembered as private secretary to Queen Victoria from 1870 until a few months before his death. PONSON DU TERRAIL [PIERRE ALEXIS DE PONSON], VICOMTE DE (1820-1871), French romance writer, was born at Montmaur (Isere) on the 8th of July 1829. He was a prolific novelist, producing in the space of two years some seventy- three volumes. Among his most successful productions were Les Coulisses du monde (1853), Exploits de Rocambole (1859), Les Drames de Paris (1865) and Le Forgeron de la Cour-Dieu (1869). He died at Bordeaux on the 2oth of January 1871. PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524-1606), Scottish reformer, was educated at St Andrews. In 1562 he was appointed minister at Dunblane and then at Dunkeld; in 1563, commis- sioner for Moray, Inverness and Banff. Then in succession he became minister of Birnie (1567), provost of Trinity College near Edinburgh (1571), a lord of session (1572), minister of St Cuthbert's, Edinburgh (1573) and at St Andrews (1581). Pont was a strenuous champion of ecclesiastical independence, and for protesting against parliamentary interference in church government he was obliged to leave his country. From 1584 to 1586 he was in England, but returning north he resumed his prominence in church matters and kept it until his death in 1606. His elder son Timothy Pont (i56o?-i6i4?) was a good mathematician, surveyor, and " the first projector of a Scottish atlas." PONTA DELGADA, the capital of an administrative district, comprising the islands of St Michael's and St Mary in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900), 17,620. Ponta Delgada is built on the south coast of St Michael's, in 37° 40' N. and 25° 36' W. Its mild climate, and the fine scenery of its mountain background, render it very attractive to visitors; it is the commercial centre, and the most populous city of the archipelago. Besides the cathedral, it contains several inter- esting churches and monasteries, and an observatory. Formerly its natural inner harbour only admitted vessels of light draught, while larger ships were compelled to anchor in an open road- stead, which was inaccessible during the prevalence of southerly gales. But great improvements were effected after 1860 by the construction of a breakwater 2800 ft. long. PONT-A-MOUSSON, a town of northern France in the depart- ment of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,282. The Moselle, which is canalized, divides the town into two quarters, united by a bridge of the late i6th century. The church of St Martin, dating from the i3th, i4th and 1 5th centuries, has a handsome facade with two towers, and in the interior a choir screen and Holy Sepulchre of the 1 5th century. The lower ecclesiastical seminary occupies the build- ing of an old Premonstratensian convent. There are several interesting old houses. The town has a communal college and engineering workshops, blast furnaces, and manufactures of lacquered ware, paper, cardboard, cables and iron-ware. Dating from the gth or loth century, Pont-a-Mousson constituted a lordship, which was made a marquisate in 1354. It was from 1572 to 1763 the seat of a well-known university. PONTANUS, JOVIANUS (1426-1503), Italian humanist and poet, was born in 1426 at Cerreto in the duchy of Spoleto, PONTARLIER— PONTECOULANT where his father was murdered in one of the frequent civil brawls which then disturbed the peace of Italian towns. His mother escaped with the boy to Perugia, and it was here that Pontano received his first instruction in languages and literature. Failing to recover his patrimony, he abandoned Umbria, and at the age of twenty-two established himself at Naples, which continued to be his chief place of residence during a long and prosperous career. He here began a close friendship with the distinguished scholar, Antonio Beccadelli, through whose in- fluence he gained admission to the royal chancery of Alphonso th_- Magnanimous. Alphonso discerned the singular gifts of the young scholar, and made him tutor to his sons. Pontano's connexion with the Aragonese dynasty as political adviser, military secretary and chancellor was henceforth a close one; and the most doubtful passage in his diplomatic career is when he welcomed Charles VIII. of France upon the entry of that king into Naples in 1495, thus showing that he was too ready to abandon the princes upon whose generosity his fortunes had been raised. Pontano illustrates in a marked manner the position of power to which men of letters and learning had arrived in Italy. He entered Naples as a penniless scholar. He was almost immediately made the companion and trusted friend of its sovereign, loaded with honours, lodged in a fine house, enrolled among the nobles of the realm, enriched, and placed at the very height of social importance. Following the example of Pomponio Leto in Rome and of Cosimo de' Medici at Florence, Pontano founded an academy for the meetings of learned and distinguished men. This became the centre of fashion as well as of erudition in the southern capital, and subsisted long after its founder's death. In 1461 he married his first wife, Adriana Sassone, who bore him one son and three daughters before her death in 1491. Nothing distinguished Pontano more than the strength of his domestic feeling. He was passionately attached to his wife and children; and, while his friend Beccadelli signed the licentious verses of Hermaphroditus, his own Muse celebrated in liberal but loyal strains the pleasures of conjugal affection, the charm of infancy and the sorrows of a husband and a father in the loss of those he loved. Not long after the death of his first wife Pontano took in second marriage a beautiful girl of Ferrara, who is only known to us under the name of Stella. Although he was at least sixty-five years of age at this period, his poetic faculty displayed itself with more than usual warmth and lustre in the glowing series ef elegies, styled Eridanus, which he poured forth to commemorate the rapture of this union. Stella's one child, Lucilio, survived his birth but fifty days; nor did his mother long remain to comfort the scholar's old age. Pontano had already lost his only son by the first marriage; therefore his declining years were solitary. He died in 1503 at Naples, where a remarkable group of terra-cotta figures, life-sized and painted, still adorns his tomb in the church of Monte Oliveto. He is there represented together with his patron Alphonso and his friend Sannazzaro in adoration before the dead Christ. As a diplomatist and state official Pontano played a part of some importance in the affairs of southern Italy and in the Barons' War, the wars with Rome, and the expulsion and restora- tion of the Aragonese dynasty. But his chief claim upon the attentions of posterity is as a scholar. His writings divide themselves into dissertations upon such topics as the " Liberality of Princes " or " Ferocity," composed in the rhetorical style of the day, and poems. He was distinguished for energy of Latin style, for vigorous intellectual powers, and for the faculty, rare among his contemporaries, of expressing the facts of modern life, the actualities of personal emotion, in language sufficiently classical yet always characteristic of the man. His prose treatises are more useful to students of manners than the similar lucubrations of Poggio. Yet it was principally as a Latin poet that he exhibited his full strength. An ambitious didactic composition in hexameters, entitled Urania, embodying the astronomical science of the age, and adorning this high theme with brilliant mythological episodes, won the admiration of Italy. It still remains a monument of fertile invention, exuberant facility and energetic handling of material. Not less excellent is the didactic poem on orange trees, De hortis Hesperi- dum. His most original compositions in verse, however, are elegiac and hendecasyllabic pieces on personal topics — the De conjugali amore, Eridanus, Tumuli, Naeniae, Baiae, &c. — in which he uttered his vehemently passionate emotions with a warmth of southern colouring, an evident sincerity, and a truth of painting from reality which excuse their erotic freedom. Pontano's prose and poems were printed by the Aldi at Venice. For his life see Ardito, Giovanni Pontano e i suoi tempi (Naples, 1871); for his place in the history of literature, Symonds, Renais- sance in Italy. G- A. S.) PONTARLIER, a frontier town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Doubs, 36 m. S.E. of Besancon by road. Pop. (1006), 7896. It is situated 2750 ft. above sea-level on the Doubs, about four miles from the Swiss frontier, and forms an important strategic point at the mouth of the defile of La Cluse, one of the principal passes across the Jura. The pass is defended by the modern fort of Larmont, and by the Fort de Joux, which was originally built in the loth century by the family of Joux and played a conspicuous part in the history of Franche-Comte. Pontarlier is the junction of railway lines to Neuchatel, Lausanne, Lons-le-Saunier, D61e and Besanc.on. A triumphal arch of the i8th century com- memorates the reconstruction of the town after the destructive fire of 1736. It was at Pontarlier that the French army of the East made its last stand against the Prussians in 1871 before crossing the Swiss frontier. The distillation of herbs, extensively cultivated for the manufacture of absinthe, kirsch and other liqueurs, is the chief industry. The town is the seat of a sub- prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. PONT AUDEMER, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Eure, 39 m. N.W. of Evreux, on the Risle, a left-bank affluent of the Seine, and on the railway from Evreux to Honfleur. Pop. (1906), 5700. The church of St Ouen, which has fine stained glass of the i6th century, combines the late Gothic and Renaissance styles; its choir is Romanesque. Local institutions are the sub-prefec- ture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber and tribunal of commerce. Manufacturing industry is active, and includes the founding of malleable metal, a spur factory, the manufacture of glue and paper, cotton-spinning and various branches of leather manufacture. There is trade in flax, wool, grain, cattle, cider, paper, iron, wood and coal. The port has a length of over half a mile on the Risle, which is navigable for small vessels from this point toils mouth (10 m.). The town owes its name to Audomar, a Frank lord, who in the 7th or 8th century built a bridge over the Risle at this point. It was the scene of several provincial ecclesiastical councils in the i zth and i3th centuries and of meetings of the estates of Normandy in the I3th century. PONTE (Ital. for " bridge "), a rough game peculiar to the city of Pisa, in which the players, divided into two sides and provided with padded costumes, contended for the possession of one of the bridges over the Arno. The weapon used, both for offence and defence, was a kind of shield which served as a club as well. A history and description of the game may be found in William Heywood's Polio and Ponte (London, 1904). PONTECORVO, a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, on the Garigliano, about 48 m. from Caserta and 3 m. from Aquino on the railway from Rome to Naples. Pop. (1001), 10,518 (town); 12,492 (commune). The town is approached by a triumphal arch adorned with a statue of Pius IX. The princi- pality of Pontecorvo (about 40 sq. m. in extent), once an indepen- dent state, belonged alternately to the Tomacelli and the abbots of Monte Cassino. Napoleon bestowed it on Bernadotte in 1806, and in iSioit was incorporated with the French Empire. PONTECOULANT, LOUIS GUSTAVE LE DOULCET, COMTE DE (1764-1853), French politician, was born at Caen on the i?th of November 1764. He began a career in the army in 1778. 64 PONTEFRACT A moderate supporter of the revolution, he was returned to the Convention for the department of Calvados in 1792, and became commissary with the army of the North. He voted for the imprisonment of Louis XVI. during the war, and his banishment after the peace. He then attached himself to the party of the Gironde, and in August 1793 was outlawed. He had refused to defend his compatriot Charlotte Corday, who wrote him a letter of reproach on her way to the scaffold. He returned to the Convention on the 8th of March 1795, and showed an unusual spirit of moderation by defending Prieur de la Marne and Robert Lindet. President of the Convention in July 1795, he was for some months a member of the council of public safety. He was subsequently elected to the council of five hundred, but was suspected of royalist leanings, and had to spend some time in retirement before the establishment of the consulate. Becoming senator in 1805, and count of the empire in 1808, he organized the national guard in Tranche Comte in 1811, and the defence of the north-eastern frontier in 1813. At the first restoration Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France, and although he received a similar honour from Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he sat in the upper house under the Second Restoration. He died in Paris on the 3rd of April 1853, leaving memoirs and correspondence from which were extracted four volumes (1861- 1865) of Souvenirs historiques et parlementaires 1764-1848. His son Louis Adolphe Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant (1794-1882), served under Napoleon in 1812 and 1814, and then emigrated to Brazil, where he took part in the abortive insurrec- tion at Pernambuco in 1817. He also organized a French volunteer contingent in the Belgian revolution of 1830, and was wounded at Louvain. The rest of his life was spent in Paris in the study of ancient music and acoustics. Among his works was one on the Musee instrumental du conservatoire de musique (1864). A younger brother, Philippe Gustave Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant (1795-1874), served in the army until 1849, when he retired to devote himself to mathematics and astronomy. His works include Theorie analytique du systeme du monde (Paris, 1829-1846) and Traiti elementaire de physique celeste (2 vols., Paris, 1840). PONTEFRACT (pronounced and sometimes written " Pom- fret "), a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. S.S.W. from York, served by the Midland, North-Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 9702; (1901), 13,427. It is well situated, mainly on an eminence, near the junction of the Aire and the Calder. The most important of the antiquarian remains are the ruins of the famous castle situated on a rocky height, originally covering with its precincts an area of over 8 acres, and containing in all eight round towers. The remains are principally of Norman date, and an unusual feature of the stronghold is the existence of various subterranean chambers in the rock. Below the castle is All Saints church, which suffered severely during the siege of the castle, but still retains some work of the 1 2th century. In 1837 the tower and transepts were fitted for divine service. The church of St Giles, formerly a chapel of ease to All Saints, but made parochial in the i8th century, is of Norman date, but most of the present structure is modern. The 17th-century spire was removed in 1707, and replaced by a square tower, which was rebuilt in 1797; the chan- cel was rebuilt in 1869. In Southgate is an ancient hermitage and oratory cut out of the solid rock, which dates from 1396. On St Thomas's Hill, where Thomas, earl of Lancaster, was beheaded in 1322, a chantry was erected in 1373, the site of which is now occupied by a windmill built of its stones. At Monkhill there are the remains of a Tudor building called the Old Hall, probably constructed out of the old priory of St John's. A grammar school of ancient foundation, renewed by Elizabeth and George III., occupies modern buildings. The town-hall was built at the close of the i8th century on the site of one erected in 1656, which succeeded the old moot-hall dating from Saxon times. Among other buildings are the court house, the market hall, the assembly rooms (a handsome building adjoining the town-hall), and large barracks. The foundation of the principal almshouse, that of St Nicholas, dates from before the Conquest. Trinity Hospital was founded by Sir Robert Knolles (d. 1407), an eminent military commander in the French wars of Edward III. At Ackworth, in the neighbourhood, there is a large school of the Society of Friends or Quakers (1778), in the foundation of which Dr John Fothergill (1712-1780) was a prime mover. There are extensive gardens and nurseries in the neighbourhood of Pontefract, and liquorice is largely grown for the manufacture of the celebrated Pomfret cakes. The town possesses ironfoundries, sack and matting manufactories, tanneries, breweries, corn mills and brick and terra-cotta works. The parliamentary borough, falling within the Osgoldcross division of the county, returns one member (before 1885 the number was two). The town is governed by a mayor, six alder- men and 1 8 councillors. Area, 4078 acres. The remains of a Roman camp have been discovered near Pontefract, but there is no trace of settlement in the town itself until after the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tateshall (now Tanshelf, a suburb of the town) was the chief manor and contained 60 burgesses, while Kirkby, which after- wards became the borough of Pontefract, was one of its members. The change was probably owing to the fact that Ilbert de Lacy, to whom the Conqueror had granted the whole of the honour of Pontefract, founded a castle at Kirkby, on a site said to have been occupied by a fortification raised by Ailric, a Saxon thane. Several reasons are given for the change of name but none is at all satisfactory. One account -says that it was caused by a broken bridge which delayed the Conqueror's advance to the north, but this is known to have been at Ferrybridge, three miles away; a second says that the new name was derived from a Norman town called Pontfrete, which, however, never existed; and a third that it was caused by the breaking of a bridge in 1153 on the arrival of the archbishop of York, St William, when several people were miraculously preserved from drowning, although the town was already known as Pontefract in 1 140 when Archbishop Thurstan died there. The manor remained in the Lacy family until it passed by marriage to Thomas, duke of Lancaster, who was beheaded on a hill outside the town after the battle of Boroughbridge. His estates were restored to his brother Henry, earl of Lancaster, on the accession of Edward III., and the manor has since then formed part of the duchy of Lancaster. The town took part in most of the rebellions in the north of England, and in 1399 Richard II. was imprisoned and secretly murdered in the castle. During the Wars of the Roses the town was loyal to Henry VI., and several of the Yorkist leaders were executed here after the battle of Wakefield. It was taken by Robert Aske, leader of the Pilgrimage of Grace, in 1536. In 1642 the castle was garrisoned for Charles I. and sustained four sieges, the second, in 1644, being successful, but two years later it was retaken by the royalists, who held it until after the execution of the king, when they surrendered to General Lambert and the castle was destroyed. Roger de Lacy in 1194 granted a charter to the burgesses confirming their liberties and right to be a free borough at a fee-farm of i2d. yearly for every toft, granting them the same privileges as the burgesses of Grimsby, and that their reeve should be chosen annually by the lord of the manor at his court leet, preference being given to the burgesses if they would pay as much as others for the office. Henry de Lacy cofirmed this charter in 1278 and in 1484 Richard III. incorporated the town under the title of mayor and burgesses and granted a gild merchant with a hanse. His charter was withdrawn on the accession of Henry VII. and a similar one was granted, while in 1489 the king gave the burgesses licence to continue choosing a mayor as they had done in the time of Richard III. In 1606-1607 James I. confirmed the charter of Henry VII. and regulated the choice of the mayor by providing that he should be elected from among the chief burgesses by the burgesses themselves. The privilege of returning two members to parliament which had belonged to Pontefract at the end of the I3th century was revived in i62o-i62r on the grounds that the charter of 1606-1607 had restored all their privileges to the burgesses. Since the PONTEVEDRA— PONTIAC Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 one member only has been returned. Liquorice was largely grown as early as 1700-1701, when the corporation prohibited the sale of buds or sets of the plant. Richard III. by his incorporation charter granted the market rights in the borough to the burgesses, who still hold them under his charter. See Victoria County History : Yorkshire ; Eighth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts (1870— 1897); Book of Entries of the Pontefract Corporation, 1653-1726 (ed. by Richard Holmes, 1882); Benjamin Boothroyd, The History of the Ancient Borough of Ponte- fract (1807); George Fox, The History of Pontefract (1827). PONTEVEDRA, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from Galicia, and bounded on the N. by Corunna, E. by Lugo and Orense, S. by Portugal and W. by the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 457,262; area, 1695 sq. m. Pontevedra is the smallest of the provinces of Spain except the three Basque Provinces; its density of population, 269-8 inhabitants per square mile, is only excelled in the provinces of Barcelona and Biscay (Vizcaya). Both of these are mining and manufacturing districts, while Pontevedra is dependent on agriculture and fisheries. The surface is everywhere moun- tainous, and consists almost entirely of arable land, pasture or forest. The coast-line is deeply indented; navigation is rendered difficult by the prevalence of fogs in summer and storms in winter. The river Mino (Portuguese Minho) forms the southern frontier, and is navigable by small ships as far as Salvatierra; and the province is watered by many smaller streams, all flowing, like the Mino, into the Atlantic. The largest of these are the UUa, which separates Pontevedra from Corunna, the Umia and the Lerez. Pontevedra has a mild climate, a fertile soil and a very heavy rainfall. Large agricultural fairs are held in the chief towns, and there is a considerable export trade in cattle to Great Britain and Portugal, hams, salt meat and fish, eggs, breadstuffs, leather and wine. Vigo is the headquarters of shipping, and one of the chief ports of northern Spain. There are also good harbours at Bayona, Carril, Marin, Villagarcia and elsewhere among the deep estuaries of the coast. At Tuy the Spanish and Portuguese railways meet, and from this town one line goes up the Mino valley to Orense, and another northward along the coast to Santiago de Compostela. PONTEVEDRA, the capital of the Spanish province of Ponte- vedra; on the Tuy-Corunna railway, and on the river Lerez, which here enters the Ria de Pontevedra, an inlet of the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 22,330. The name of the town is derived from the ancient Roman bridge (pans velus) of twelve arches, which spans the Lerez near its mouth. Pontevedra is a picturesque town, mainly built of granite, and still partly enclosed by medieval fortifications. It contains handsome provincial and municipal halls erected in the igth century, and many convents, some of which have been converted into hospitals or schools. Marin and Sangenjo are ports on the Ria de Pontevedra, which is the seat of a thriving sardine fishery. There is an active trade in grain, wine and fruit ; cloth, hats, leather and pottery are manufactured. PONTIAC (c. 1720-1769), Indian chief of the Ottawa and leader in the " Conspiracy of Pontiac " in 1763-64, was born between 1712 and 1720 probably on the Maumee river, near the mouth of the Auglaize. His father was an Ottawa, and his mother an Ojibwa. By 1755 he had become a chief of the Ottawa and a leader of the loose confederacy of the Ottawa, Potawatomi .and Ojibwa. He was an ally of France and possibly commanded the Ottawa in the defeat (July 9, 1755) of General Edward Braddock. In November 1760 he met Major Robert Rogers, then on his way to occupy Michilimackinac and other forts surrendered by the French, and agreed to let the English troops pass unmolested on condition that he should be treated with respect by the British. Like other Indians he soon realized the difference between French and English rule — that the Indians were no longer welcomed at the forts and that they would ultimately be deprived of their hunting grounds by en- croaching English settlements. French hunters and traders encouraged Indian disaffection with vague promises of help from France; in 1762 an Indian "prophet" among the Delawares on the Muskingum preached a union of the Indians to expel the xxii. 3 English; and in that year (as in 1761) there were abortive con- spiracies to massacre the English garrisons of Detroit, Fort Niagara and Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). Pontiac seems to have been chief of a magic association (the Atetai), and he took advan- tage of the religious fervour and the general unrest among the Indians to organize in the winter 'of 1762-63 a simultaneous attack on the English forts to be made in May 1763 at a certain phase of the moon. On the 27th of April 1763, before a meeting near Detroit of delegates from most of the Algonquian tribes, he outlined his plans. On the 7th of May, with 60 warriors, he attempted unsuccessfully to gain admission to Detroit, which then had a garrison of about 160 under Major Henry Glad win (1730-1791); and then besieged the fort from the 9th of May to the end of October. On the 28th of May reinforcements from Fort Niagara were ambuscaded near the mouth of the Detroit. In June the Wyandot and Potawatomi withdrew from the siege, but on the 29th of July they attacked reinforcements (280 men, including 20 of Rogers's rangers) from Fort Niagara under Captain James Dalyell (or Dalzell), who, however, gained the fort, and in spite of Gladwin's opposition on the 3ist of July attacked Pontiac's camp, but was ambuscaded on Bloody Run and was killed, nearly 60 others being killed or wounded. On the 1 2th of October the Potawatomi, Ojibwa and Wyandot made peace with the English; with the Ottawa Pontiac continued the siege until the 3oth of October, when he learned from Neyon de la Valliere, commandant of Fort Chartres (among the Illinois) that he would not be aided by the French. Pontiac then withdrew to the Maumee. Fort Pitt with a garrison of 330 men under Captain Simeon Ecuyer was attacked on the 22nd of June and was besieged from the 27th of July to the ist of August, when the Indians withdrew to meet a relief expedition of 500 men, mostly High- landers, under Colonel Henry Bouquet (1719-1766), who had set out from Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the i8th of July, and relieved Fort Ligonier (on the site of the borough of Ligonier, Westmoreland county, Penn.) on the 2nd of August, but was surprised on the sth, and fought (5th and 6th) the battle of Bushy Run (25 m. S.E. of Fort Pitt), finally flanking and routing the Indians after tricking them by a feinted retreat of a part of his force. Bouquet reached Fort Pitt on the loth of August. At Michilimackinac (Mackinac), Michigan, on the 4th of June, the Indians gained admission to the fort by a trick, killed nearly a score of the garrison and captured the remainder, including Captain George Etherington, the commander, besides several English traders, including Alexander Henry (1739-1824).' Some of the captives were seized by the Ottawa, who had taken no part in the attack ; a part of these were released, and reached Montreal on the i3th of August. Seven of the prisoners kept by the Ojibwa were killed in cold blood by one of their chiefs. Fort Sandusky (on the site of Sandusky, Ohio) was taken on the 1 6th of May by Wyandot; and Fort St Joseph (on the site of the present Niles, Mich.) was captured on the 25th of May and n men (out of its garrison of 14) were massacred, the others with the commandant, Ensign Schlosser, being taken to Detroit and exchanged for Indian prisoners. On the 27th of May Fort Miami (on the site of Fort Wayne, Indiana) surrendered to the Indians after its commander, Ensign Holmes, had been treacher- ously killed. Fort Ouiatanon (about 5 m. south-west of the present Lafayette, Indiana) and Fort Presque Isle (on the site of Erie, Penn.) were taken by the Indians on the ist and i6th of June respectively; and Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of Waterford, 1 Henry, a native of New Brunswick, N.J., had become a fur- trader at Fort Michilimackinac in 1761. He was rescued by Wawatam, an Ottawa, who had adopted him as a brother; in 1764 he took part in Colonel John Bradstreet's expedition; in 1770, with Sir William Johnson, the duke of Gloucester and others, formed a Company to mine copper in the Lake Superior region; was a fur- trader again until 1796; and then became a merchant in Montreal. His Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between the Years 1760 and 1776 (1809; reprinted 1901) is a valuable account of the fur trade and of his adventures at Michilimackinac. He is not to be confused with his nephew of the same name, also a fur-trader, whose journal was published in 1897 in 3 vols., as New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest. 66 PONTIAC— PONTIVY Penn.) was surprised on the i8th, but its garrison escaped, and seven (out of 13) got safely to Fort Pitt Fort Venango (near the site of the present Venango, Penn.) was taken and burnt about the same time by some Senecas (the only Iroquois in the conspiracy), who massacred the garrison and later burned the commander, Lieut. Gordon. About 500 Senecas on the I4th of September surprised a wagon train, escorted by 24 soldiers, from Fort Schlosser (2 m. above Niagara Falls), drove most of them over the brink of the Devil's Hole (below the cataract), and then nearly annihilated a party from Fort Niagara sent to the rescue. In 1763, although the main attacks on Detroit and Fort Pitt had failed, nearly every minor fort attacked was captured, about 200 settlers and traders were killed, and in property destroyed or plundered the English lost about £100,000, the greatest loss in men and property being in western Pennsylvania. In June 1764 Colonel John Bradstreet (1711-1774) led about 1 200 men from Albany to Fort Niagara, where at a great gather- ing of the Indians several treaties were made in July; in August he made at Presque Isle a treaty (afterwards annulled by General Thomas Gage) with some Delaware andShawnee chiefs; and in September made treaties (both unsatisfactory) with the Wyandot, Ottawa and Miami at Sandusky, and with various chiefs at Detroit. He sent Captain Howard to occupy the forts at Michilimackinac, Green Bay and Sault Ste Marie, and Captain Morris up the Maumee river, where he conferred with Pontiac, and then to Fort Miami, where he narrowly escaped death at the hands of the Miami; and with his men Bradstreet returned to Oswego in November, having accomplished little of value. An expedition of 1500 men under Colonel Bouquet left Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in August, and near the site of the present Tuscarawas, Ohio, induced the Indians to release their prisoners and to stop fighting — the practical end of the conspiracy. Pontiac himself made submission to Sir William Johnson on the 25th of July 1766 at Oswego, New York. In April 1769 he was murdered, when drunk, at Cahokia (nearly opposite St Louis) by a Kaskaskia Indian bribed by an English trader; and he was buried near the St Louis Fort. His death occasioned a bitter war in which a remnant of the Illinois was practically annihilated in 1770 at Starved Rock (between the present Ottawa and La Salle), Illinois, by the Potawatomi, who had been followers of Pontiac. Pontiac was one of the most remarkable men of the Indian race in American history, and was notable in particular for his power (rare among the Indians) of organization. See Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac (2 vols., Boston, 1851; loth ed., 1896). PONTIAC, a city and the county-seat of Oakland county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Clinton river, about 26 m. N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890), 6200; (1900) 9769, of whom 2020 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 14,532. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Pontiac, Oxford & Northern railways (being the southern terminus of the latter), and by the Detroit & Pontiac and the North-Western electric inter-urban lines. In the sur- rounding country there are many small, picturesque lakes (the largest being Orchard, about 6 m. south-east of Pontiac, Cass and Elizabeth lakes), and there is good hunting and fishing in the vicinity. In- Pontiac is the Eastern Michigan Asylum for the insane (1878), with grounds covering more than 500 acres. The city has various manufactures, and the value of the factory products increased from $2,470,887 in 1900 to $3,047,422 in 1904, or 23-3%. Agricultural products, fruit and wool from the surrounding country are shipped in considerable quantities. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Pontiac, named in honour of the famous Indian chief of that name, was laid out as a town in 1818, became the county-seat in 1820, was incorporated as a village in 1837, and was chartered in 1861. PONTIANUS, pope from 230 to 235. He was exiled by the emperor Maximinus to Sardinia, and in consequence of this sen- tence resigned (Sept. 28,235). HC was succeeded by Anteros. PONTIFEX. The collegium of the Pontifices was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome, being specially charged with the administration of the jus divinum, i.e. that part of the civil law which regulated the relations of the comrriunity with the deities recognized by the state officially, together with a general superintendence of the worship of gens and family. The name is clearly derived from pans and facere, but whether this should be taken as indicating any special connexion with the sacred bridge over the Tiber (Pans Sublicitts), or what the original meaning may have been, cannot now be determined. The college existed under the monarchy, when its members were probably three in number; they may safely be considered as legal advisers of the rex in all matters of religion. Under the republic they emerge into prominence under a ponlifex maximus, who took over the king's duties as chief administrator of religious law, just as his chief sacrificial duties were taken by the rex sacrorum; his dwelling was the regia, " the house of the king." During the republican period the number of pontifices increased, probably by multiples of three, until after Sulla (82 B.C.) we find them fifteen; for the year 57 B.C. we have a complete list of them in Cicero (Harusp. resp. 6, 12). Included in the collegium were also the rex sacrorum, the flamines, three assistant pontifices (minores), and the vestal virgins, who were all chosen by the pontifex maximus. Vacancies in the body of pontifices were originally filled by co-optation; but from the second Punic War onwards the pontifex maximus was chosen by a peculiar form of popular election, and in the last age of the republic this held good for all the members. They all held office for life. The immense authority of the college centred in the pontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important ; the real power lay in the adminis- tration of the jus divinum, the chief departments of which may briefly be described as follows: (t) the regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as the result of pestilence, lightning, &c.; (2) the consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods by the state through its magis- trates; (3) the regulation of the calendar both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state; (4) the administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the Manes, or dead ancestors; (5) the superin- tendence of all marriages by confarreatio, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages; (6) the administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession. They had also the care of the state archives, of the lists of magistrates, and kept records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events of each year (annales), It is obvious that a priesthood having such functions as these, and holding office for life, must have been a great power in the state, and for the first three centuries of the republic it is probable that the pontifex maximus was in fact its most powerful member. The office might be combined with a magistracy, and, though its powers were declaratory rather than executive, it may fairly be described as quasi-magisterial. Under the later republic it was coveted chiefly for the great dignity of the position; Julius Caesar held it for the last twenty years of his life, and Augustus took it after the 'death of Lepidus in 12 B.C., after which it became inseparable from the office of the reigning emperor. _ With the decay of the empire the title very naturally fell to the popes, whose functions as administrators of religious law closely resembled those of the ancient Roman priesthood, hence the modern use of " pontiff " and " pontifical." For further details consult Marquardt, Slaatsverwaltung, iii. 235 seq^ ! Wissowa, Religion und Kullus der Romer, 430 seq. ; Bouche'-Leclercq, Les Pontifes, passim. (W. W. F. *) PONTIVY, a town of western France, chief town of an arron- dissement in the department of Morbihan, 46 m. N.N.W. of Vannes by rail. Pop. (1906), 6312 (town); 9506 (commune). The town, situated on the Blavet, at its confluence with the Nantes-Brest canal, comprises two distinct parts — the old town and that to the south known as Napoleonville. The latter, built by order of Napoleon I., who desired to make it the military headquarters for Brittany, and consisting chiefly of barracks, subsequently gave its name to the whole town, but in 1871 the old name was resumed. The ancient castle (1485) of the dukes PONT-L'ABBE— PONTOON of Rohan, whose capital the town was, is occupied by the Musee le Brigant of art and archaeology. A monument to commem- orate the Breton-Angevin Union, the deputies of which met at Pontivy in 1790, was erected in 1894, and there are statues of Dr Guepin, a democrat, and General de Lourmel (d. 1854). The i has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a luce for boys. Pontivy had its origin in a monastery founded in the ;th century by St Ivy, a monk of Lindisfarnc. PONT-L'ABB6, a town of western France in the department of Finistere, 13 m. S.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906), of the town 4485, of the commune 6432. The town is situated on the right bank of the estuary or river of Pont-1'Abbe, 2 m. from the sru. Its port carries on fishing, imports timber, coal, &c., and exports mine-props and the cereals and vegetables of the neigh- bourhood. Of the old buildings of the town the chief is a church of the i4th, I5th and i6th centuries, once attached to a Carmelite convent; an old castle is occupied by the hotel de ville. The local costumes, trimmed with the bright-coloured embroideries for which the town is noted, are among the most striking in Brittany; the bigouden or head-dress of the women has given its name to the inhabitants. Pont-1' Ab.be carries on flour-milling and the extraction of chemicals from seaweed. PONTMARTIN, ARMAND AUGUSTIN JOSEPH MARIE FERRARD, COMTE DE (1811-1890), French critic and man of letters, was born at Avignon (Vaucluse) on the i6th of July 1811. Imbued by family tradition with legitimist sympathies, he began by attacking the followers of the encyclopaedists and their successors. In the A ssemblee nalionale he published his Causeries litteraires, a series of attacks on prominent Liberals, which created some sensation. Pontmartin was an indefatigable journalist, and most of his papers were eventually published in volume form: Contes et reveries d'un planteur de choux (1845); Causeries du samedi (1857-1860); Nouveaux samedis (1865-1881), &c. But the most famous of all his books is Les Jeudis de Mme. Charbonneau (1862), which under the form of a novel offered a series of malicious and witty portraits of contemporary writers. Pontmartin died at Avignon on the 29th of March 1890. See Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires du XIX' siide (1894). PONTOISE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron- dissement of the department of Seine-et-Oise, 18 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1906), 7963. Pontoise is picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Oise where it is joined by the Viosne. The traffic on the main river is large, and the tributary drives numerous mills. Of the many churches that used to exist in the town two only remain: St Maclou, a church of the I2th century, altered and restored in the 15th and i6th centuries by Pierre Lemercier, the famous architect of St Eustache at Paris, and containing a fine holy sepulchre of the 1 6th century; and Notre-Dame, of the close of the i6th century, which contains the tomb of St Gautier, abbot of Meulan in the 1 2th century. At the top of the flight of steps by which St Maclou is approached is the statue of General Leclerc, a native of the town and husband of Pauline Bonaparte. Grain and flour are the principal staples of the trade; a well-known fair is held in Xovember. The town has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. At Meriel, near Pontoise, there are interesting remains of the Cistercian abbey of Le Val. Pontoise existed in the time of the Gauls as Brim Isarae (Bridge of the Oise). It was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century, united with Normandy in 1032, and acquired by Philip I. in 1064. Capital of the French Vexin, it possessed an important stronghold and played a conspicuous part in the wars between the French and the dukes of Normandy and in the Hundred Years' War. The English took it in 1419, and again in 1437. In 1441 Charles VII. took it by storm after a three months' siege. After belonging to the count of Charolais down to the treaty of Conflans, it was given as a dowry to Jeanne of France when she was divorced by Louis XII. The parlement of Paris several times met in the town; and in 1561 the states- general convoked at Orleans removed thither after the death of Francis II. During the Fronde it offered a refuge to Louis XIV. and Mazarin. Henry III. made it an apanage for his brother the duke of Anjou. At a later period it passed to the duke of Conti. Down to the Revolution it remained a monastic town. PONTOON (Fr. ponton, from Lat. pans, a bridge), a flat- bottomed boat, used as a ferry boat or lighter; especially a boat of particular design intended to form part of a military bridge. In modern hydraulic engineering the words ponton and pontoon are used to designate hollow water-tight structures which are secured to sunken wrecks and bring them up to the surface, and also the hollow chambers which serve as gates for docks and sluices, and are lowered and raised by the admission and pumping out of water. Military Pontoon Bridges. — From time immemorial floating bridges of vessels bearing a roadway of beams and planks have been employed to facilitate the passage of rivers and arms of the sea. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont on a double bridge, one line supported on three hundred and sixty, the other on three hundred and fourteen vessels, anchored head and stern with their keels in the direction of the current. Darius threw similar bridges across the Bosporus and the Danube in his war against the Scythians, and the Ten Thousand employed a bridge of boats to cross the river Tigris in their retreat from Persia. Floating bridges have been repeatedly constructed over rivers in Europe and Asia, not merely temporarily for the passage of an army, but permanently for the requirements of the country; and to this day many of the great rivers in India are crossed, on the lines of the principal roads, by floating bridges, which are for the most part supported on boats such as are employed for ordinary traffic on the river. But light vessels which can be taken out of the water and lifted on to carriages are required for transport with an army in the field. Alexander the Great occasionally carried with his army vessels divided into portions, which were put together on reaching the banks of a river, as in crossing the Hydaspes ; he is even said to have carried his army over the Oxus by means of rafts made of the hide tents of the soldiers stuffed with straw, when he found that all the river boats had been burnt. Cyrus crossed the Euphrates on stuffed skins. The practice of carrying about skins to be inflated when troops had to cross a river, which was adopted by both Greeks and Romans, still exists in the East. In the 4th century the emperor Julian crossed the Tigris, Euphrates and other rivers by bridges of boats made of skins stretched over osier frames. In the wars of the i7th century pontoons are found as regular components of the trains of armies, the Germans using a leather, the Dutch a tin and the French a copper " skin " over stout timber frames. Modern military pontoons have been made of two forms, open as an undecked boat, or closed as a decked canoe or cylinder. During the Peninsular War the English employed open bateaux; but the experience gained in that war induced them to introduce the closed form. General Colleton devised a buoy pontoon, cylindrical with conical ends and made of wooden staves like a cask. Then General Sir Charles Pasley introduced demi-pon- toons, like decked canoes with pointed bows and square sterns, a pair, attached sternwise, forming a single " pier " of support for the roadway; they were constructed of light timber frames covered with sheet copper and were decked with wood; each demi-pontoon was divided internally into separate compartments by partitions which were made as water-tight as possible, and also supplied with the means of pumping out water; when trans- ported overland with an army a pair of demi-pontoons and the superstructure of one bay formed the load for a single carriage weighing 27-75 cwt- when loaded. The Pasley was superseded by the Blanshard pontoon, a tin coated cylinder with hemis- pherical ends, for which great mobility was claimed, two pon- toons and two bays superstructure being carried on one waggon, giving a weight of about 45 cwt., which was intended to be drawn by four horses. The Blanshard pontoon was long used in the British army, but was ultimately discarded; and British engineers came to the conclusion that it was desirable to return to the form of the open bateau to which the engineers of all the 68 PONTOON Continental armies had meanwhile constantly adhered. Captain Fowke, R.E., invented a folding open bateau, made of water- proof canvas attached to sliding ribs, so that for transport it could be collapsed like the bellows of an accordion and for use could be extended by a pair of stretchers. This was followed by the pontoon designed by Colonel Blood, R.E., an open bateau with decked ends and sides partly decked where the rowlock blocks were fixed. It consisted of six sets of framed ribs con- nected by a deep kelson, two side streaks, and three bottom streaks. The sides and bottom were of thin yellow pine with canvas secured to both surfaces by india-rubber solution, and coated outside with marine glue. The central interval between the pontoons in forming a bridge was invariably maintained at 1 5 ft. ; for the support of the roadway five baulks were ordinarily employed, but nine for the passage of siege artillery and the heaviest loads; they fitted on to saddles resting on central saddle beams. The pontoons were not immersed to within i ft. of the tops of their " coamings " when carrying ordinary loads, as of infantry in marching order " in fours " crowded at a check, or the i6-pounder R.M.L. gun of position weighing 43 cwt.; nor were they immersed to within 6 in. when carrying extraordinary loads, such as disorganized infantry, or the 64-pounder R.M.L. gun weighing 98 cwt. In designing this pontoon the chief points attended to were — (i) improvement in power of support, (2) simplification in bridge construction, (3) reduction of weight in transport, and (4) adaptation for use singly as boats for ferrying purposes. One pontoon with the superstructure for a single bay constituted a load for one waggon, with a total weight behind horses of about 40 cwt. The following table (from Ency. Brit, gth ed.) shows the powers of various pontoons in use by different nations in the past. Modern improvements are comparatively few. The " working power of support " has been calculated in most instances by deducting from the " available buoyancy " one-fourth for open and one-tenth for closed vessels: — In the English and French equipment the pontoons were originally made of two sizes, the smaller and lighter for the " advanced guard, the larger and heavier for the " reserve; " in both equipments the same size pontoon is now adopted for general requirements, the superstructure being strengthened when necessary for very heavy weights. The German army has an undivided galvanized iron pon- toon, 24 ft. 6 in. long, handy as a boat, but of inadequate buoyancy for heavy traffic, with the result that the span has to be diminished and ipso facto the waterway obstructed. The Austrian and Italian pontoons are made in three pieces, two with bows and a middle piece without; not less than two pieces are ordinarily employed, and the third is introduced when great supporting power is required, but in all cases a constant interval is maintained between the pontoons. On the other hand, in the greater number of pontoon equipments greater supporting power is obtained not by increasing the number of supports but by diminishing the central interval between the pontoons. Within certain limits it does not matter whether the buoyancy is made up of a large number of small or a small number of large vessels, so long as the waterway is not unduly contracted and the obstruction offered to a swift current dangerously increased; but it is to be remembered that pontoon bridges have failed as frequently from being washed away as from insufficient buoyancy. In Austria efforts have been made to diminish the weight of the Birago equipment by the substitution of steel for iron. The present pontoon, in three pieces, is of steel, and 39 ft. 4 in. long, like the old pattern. In the British army Colonel Blood's equipment was later modified by the introduction of a bipartite pontoon designed in 1889 by Lieut. Clauson, R.E. Each pontoon is carried on one waggon with a bay of superstructure, and consists of two sections, a bow-piece and a stern-piece, connected together by easily manipulated couplings of phosphor bronze. Decks and " coamings " are dispensed with, and the rowlock holes are sunk in a strong gunwale. The detach- able saddle-beam, which receives the load on the centre of the thwarts, is made in sections, so as to form a continuous saddle of any length required. The baulks (or road-bearers) and chesses (or planks) remain unaltered, but chess-holders and chess-bearers are added for use in constructing light bridges for infantry in file. In this kind of bridge each pontoon section is used separately, with a roadway of chesses placed longitudinally four abreast. In the normal or medium bridge two sections, and in heavy bridge three sections are joined together. The chief advantages of the / Pontoon. I ii 11 o^ Actual Buoyancy of Pontoon. Weight of Pontoon and one Bay of Superstructure . Available Buoyancy. Hi in a 111 Sss Power per lineal foot of Roadway. Greatest ordinary Load per foot lineal . Width of Roadway. Greatest possible load at i oo It) per foot superficial of roadway. Ft. Cub. Ft. tt> tb Ib ib Ft. Ib Ib Ft. tb Gribeauval : open bateau, oak 36-3 593 45.044 8,044 37,000 27,750 22-8 1,215 840 15-6 35,568 Austrian : open, wooden, 1799 27-0 354 22,123 3.332 18,791 14,093 16-6 849 560 11-4 18,924 Aust. -Birago: open, wooden; two pieces . 28-0 303 18,907 3,249 15,658 ",744 21-7 542 560 9-3 20,181 „ , ,, three „ . . . 39-4 445 27.791 3,884 23,907 17,930 21-7 827 560 9'3 20,181 ,, , iron; two pieces . 28-0 353 22,090 3,698 18,392 13,794 21-7 636 560 9-3 20,181 ,, three „ . . . . 39-4 530 33.135 4,501 28,634 21,476 21-7 991 560 9-3 20,181 French : open, wooden ; reserve 3°-9 325 20,286 3,608 16,678 12,509 19-7 635 560 10-5 20,685 „ , , advanced guard 19-7 156 9.734 1,506 8,228 6,171 16-4 376 560 9-3 15,252 „ , , general 30-9 321 20,065 3,153 16,912 12,684 19-7 644 560 9-8 19,306 Prussian : open, wooden ; open order .... 23-7 164 10,226 2,393 7,833 5,875 15-3 384 560 9-9 15,147 „ , „ close order .... 23-7 164 10,226 2,213 8,013 6,010 II-2 535 560 9-9 1 1, 088 ,, , iron ; open order . 247 214 13.385 2,209 11,176 8,382 15-3 56i 560 9.9 15,147 ,, , ,, close order .... 24-7 214 13.385 2,029 n,356 8,517 1 1 -2 759 500 9-9 1 1, 088 Italian : open wooden ; one piece .... 19-6 283 17,660 3,582 14,078 io,559 26-3 402 560 9-8 25,774 ,, „ ,, two pieces .... 39-2 565 35,320 4,572 30,748 23,061 26-3 878 560 9-8 25,774 ,, modified ; one piece .... 24-6 "*2S 20,290 •2.4.OI 16,889 12,669 2VO 551 560 9-8 22.540 „ „ two pieces 49-2 o o 649 40.58o O'T1 4,489 36,091 27,068 •"•O v 23-0 1,178 O*-"-* 560 9-8 »U*t" 22,540 Russian \ °Pen' canvas on I open order . 2I-O 209 13,042 2,355 10,687 8,015 16-6 493 560 10-4 17,264 I wooden framework; \ close order . 2I-O 209 13.042 2,083 io,959 8,219 11-7 70S 560 10-4 12,168 Belgian: open, iron; one piece 24-8 297 18,584 3,336 15,248 11.436 19-7 580 560 9-5 18,715 ,, ,, „ two pieces 49-2 595 37.168 4,548 32,620 24,465 19-7 1,244 560 9-5 18,715 AmpriYan J india-rubber, three; ) open order . m | cylinders connected ; \ close order . 2O-O 20-0 130 '30 8,125 8,125 1,980 1,824 6,145 6,301 5.530 5.761 18-0 14-7 307 393 580 560 II-O II-O 19,800 18,370 English Pontoons. Peninsular ( open, tin ; reserve .... 18-9 209 13,092 2,374 10,718 8,039 16-8 477 560 IO-O 16,800 equipment 1 „ „ advanced guard . I5'1 1 20 7,520 1,654 5,866 4,400 14-0 3>4 560 9-0 12,600 Pasley: closed demi-canoe; copper . . . . 25-0 141 8,781 2,103 6,678 6,oto 12-5 481 560 10-0 12,500 Blanshard : cylinder, tin ; open order .... 22-5 109 6,785 i, 600 5,l85 4,667 12-5 373 560 IO-O 12,500 ,, ,, ,, close order .... 22-5 109 6,785 1,408 5,377 4,839 8-3 58i 560 IO-O 8,300 „ . „ ,, light pattern . 15-5 26 1,640 34° 1,300 1,170 5'3 220 280 7-o 3-710 Fowke: open, collapsible, canvas; open order 22-O 134 8,460 1,246 7-214 5,4" IO-O 54i 560 IO-O 10,000 Forbes: closed, spherangular, tin; open order 24-2 128 7,977 1,689 6,288 5,659 II-O 514 560 1O-O 11,000 Blood : open, wooden ; general 21-6 280 17 SOO 2 "JOO 15,200 i^.^so 15-0 890 560 Ht-O 15,000 / »G"" * »o^^ *O'O*J j 7 ^«« PONTOPPIDAN, E. — PONTORMO 69 equipment are (i) the buoyancy of the piers can be proportionec to the weight of traffic and to the roughness of the water; (2 owing to the special design of the bows, boats and rafts are easy to row, while the pontoons in bridge oppose little resistance to the current, and so require less anchor power; (3) transport rafts, pier- IH- ids and flying bridges can be constructed with great ease, owing to the flush gunwales on which baulks can rest if necessary; (4) the pontoon sections are convenient to handle, easy to ship or to transport by rail, and can readily be replaced singly if damaged in bridge. A canoe pontoon and superstructure adapted for pack transport has also been adopted from designs by Colonel (Sir) Elliott Wood, C.B., R.E. _ The pontoon consists of four sections laced together, each section being a framework of wood covered with waterproof sheeting. Three pontoons and eight composite planks form a " unit," from which can be constructed 48 ft. of bridge for infantry in file, 84 ft. for infantry in single file, or a raft to carry ij men or an empty wagon. For the British army in India the standard pontoon for many years was the Pasley; it was seldom used, however, for boats could almost always be procured on the spot in sufficient numbers where- ever a floating bridge had to be constructed. Later an equipment was prepared for the Indian army of demi-pontoons, similar to the Blood pontoon cut in half, and therefore more mobile; each has a bow and a square stern, and they are joined at the stems when required to form a " pier " ; they are fitted with movable covers and can therefore be used in much rougher water than pontoons of the home pattern, and their power of support and breadth of roadway are the same. The Chitral Relief Expedition of 1895, however, revealed certain defects. The shape of the bow was unsuited to rapid currents; the balance was not satisfactory, and the copper sheathing cracked. Experiments were then undertaken with the bipartite pontoon. The india-rubber pontoon does not appear to have been generally employed even in America, where it was invented. The engineer officers with the army of the Potomac, after full experience of the india-rubber pontoon and countless other inventions of American genius, adopted the French equipment, which they found " most excellent, useful and reliable for all military purposes." The Russians, in crossing the Danube in their war with Turkey in 1878, employed the Austrian equipment. Aluminium pontoons have been tried in Germany, but have not been adopted. For light bridging work the Berthon and other collapsible boats have been adopted in Germany and Great Britain, especially for cavalry work in advance of the army. The German folding boat is made of wood framework and canvas skin; two boats are easily carried on one " folding-boat wagon." The total length of the three sections together is 21 ft. 6 in. The British field troop R.E., attached to cavalry, carries two collapsible boats 18 ft. 6 in. long. The methods of constructing pontoon bridges have been simpli- fied of late years in most armies, and are usually restricted to (l) adding pontoons one by one to the head of the bridge; (2) con- necting rafts of two or more pontoons into bridge by intermediate bays of superstructure; and (3) swinging across the river a bridge previously prepared alongside the shore. The formation of a bridge from rafts touching one another consumes an excessive amount of equipment, and opposes unnecessary resistance to the stream ; it s therefore being discarded in most armies. " Booming out " the bridge bay by bay from the shore until the head reaches the opposite bank is unsuited for rapid currents, and is almost obsolete except for light infantry bridges. In every army the pontoon service is in the hands of technical specialists.1 But there are many other forms of military bridging, in which the specialist only supervises the work of the rdinary soldier, or indeed, takes no part. whatever. Troops of all arms are expected to be familiar with certain methods of rough temporary bridging. In the British service the forms of temporary timber bridge usually employed are called trestle, lock and floating. The trestle bridge in its various forms con- sists of a series of two-legged or three-legged trestles carrying the road-bearers and chesses which form the roadway. Trestles can be improvised, but some are carried, ready for use, by mobile engineer units and they are frequently combined with pontoon bridges at the shore ends, where holding ground for the feet of the trestles is found. Lock bridges never touch water, forming single spans over a chasm. These consist of spars made into frames of which the feet rest in the banks of the ver and the heads are interlocked, the whole being securely lashed. Another type of frame-bridge is the cantilever, which has been used in Indian frontier expeditions to bridge swift 1 In Germany, however, as mentioned below, light bridging material has been placed in the hands of the cavalry. This tendency accordance with the needs of modern armies, will probably ome more pronounced in the future. It began with the pro- ion ot demolition equipment for the cavalry pioneers. steep-banked streams. Improvised suspension bridges are also used. Floating bridges are made not only of pontoons but also of boats of all sorts, casks lashed together, and rafts. They are almost always combined with one or two bays of trestle bridging at the shore ends. The organization of bridging personnel in different armies shows as much divergence of opinion as the design of pontoon equipment. In Great Britain, since the divisional reorganization, the bridging trains have been assigned to the " army troops," which include two " bridging trains, ' totalling 14 officers and 454 men with 92 vehicles, most of them six-horsed. Each train carries 32 pontoons and 32 bays of superstructure, as well as 16 trestles and 8 bays of the appropriate superstructure, and can construct 200 yds. of medium bridge in all. Besides these trains the divisional engineer units (2 field companies per division) bear with them in all 4 pontoons and 4 trestles, with the necessary bays of superstructure, their total bridging capacity being about 40 yds. of medium bridge. In France each army corps has a bridging train which admits of the construction of bridges to the extent «f about 120 yds. of medium and 140 yds. of light bridging and bears besides 2 " advanced guard " trains which can provide 33 yds. of medium bridging each. Besides the corps trains there are also " army " trains, five in all, which can furnish 280 yds. of medium bridging apiece. These would be allotted in accordance with the requirements of particular campaigns. In Germany the increasing importance attached to independent cavalry operations has led to the assignment of a folding-boat wagon to every cavalry regiment. The regimental equipment provides for a ferry, capable of taking 25 to 30 infantrymen, one artillery vehicle or four horses at one journey, a foot-bridge 22 to 35 yds. in length, or a light bridge of 8 to 13 yds. By assembling the material of a whole cavalry division of 6 regiments, a foot-bridge of no to 210 yds. or a light bridge of 57 to 70 yds. can be constructed. The corps bridging train of a German army corps can construct 140 yds. of medium or 170 yds. of light bridging, and each of the two divisional trains, 40 yds. of medium and 48 yds. of light bridging. PONTOPPIDAN, ERIK (1698-1764), Danish author, was born at Aarhus on the 24th of August 1698. He studied divinity at the university of Copenhagen, and for some time acted as a travelling tutor. In 1735 he became one of the chaplains of the king. In 1738 he was made professor extra- ordinary of theology at Copenhagen, and in 1745 bishop of Bergen, Norway, where he died on the zoth of December 1764. His principal works are: Theatrum Daniae veteris el modernae (410, 1730), a description of the geography, natural history, an- tiquities, &c., of Denmark; Gesta et vestigia danorum extra Daniam (3 vols. 8vo, 1740), a laborious but uncritical work; Annales ecclesiae danicae (3 vols., 1741-1747); Marmora danica selectiora (2 vols. fol., 1739-1741); Glossarium norvegicum (1749); Del forste forsog Norges naturlige historic (410, 1752-1754); Eng. trans., Natural History of Norway (2 vols., 1755), containing curious accounts, often referred to, of the Kraaken, sea-serpent, and the like; Origines hafnienses (1760); Menoza (3 vols., 1742-1743), a religious novel. His Danske Alias (7 vols. 410), an historical and topographical account of Denmark, was mostly posthumous. See an article by S. M. Gjellerup in Danish Biografisk Lexikon (vol. xiii., 1899). PONTOPPIDAN, HENRIK (1857- ), Danish author, son of a pastor, was born at Fredericia on the 24th of July 1857. He studied physics and mathematics at the university of Copen- hagen, and when he was eighteen he travelled on foot through Germany and Switzerland. His novels show an intimate acquaintance with peasant life and character, the earlier ones showing clear evidence of the influence of Kjelland. An excellent example of his work is in the trilogy dealing with the history of Emanuel Hansted, a theorizing radical parson who marries a peasant wife. These three stories, Muid (" Soil." 1891), Del Forjaeltede Land (" The Promised Land," 1892), and Dommens Dag (1895) are marked by fine discrimination and great narrative power. Among his other works are Fra Hylterne [i&&l),Folkelivsskildringer (2 partsi 1888-1800), and Skyer (1890). He began in 1898 a new series in Lykke Per. the story of a typical [utlander. See an article of Niels Moller in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon (vol. xiii., 1899). PONTORMO, JACOPO DA (1494-155?), whose family name was Carucci, Italian painter of the Florentine school, was born at Pantormo in 1494, son of a painter of ordinary ability, was apprenticed to Leonardo da Vinci, and afterwards took lessons rom Piero di Cosimo. At the age of eighteen he became a PONTREMOLI— PONTUS journeyman to Andrea del Sarto, and was remarked as a young man of exceptional accomplishment and promise. Later on, but still in early youth, he executed, in continuation of Andrea's labours, the " Visitation," in the cloister of the Servi in Florence — one of the principal surviving evidences of his powers. The most extensive series of works which he ever undertook was a set of frescoes in the church of S. Lorenzo, Florence, from the " Creation of Man to the Deluge," closing with the " Last Judgment." By this time, towards 1546, he had fallen under the dangerous spell of Michelangelo's colossal genius and super- human style; and Pontormo, after working on at the frescoes for eleven years, left them incomplete, and the object of general disappointment and disparagement. They were finished by Angelo Bronzino, but have long since vanished under whitewash. Among the best works of Pontormo are his portraits, which include the likenesses of various members of the Medici family; they are vigorous, animated and highly finished. He was fond of new and odd experiments both in style of art and in method of painting. From Da Vinci he caught one of the marked physio- gnomic traits of his visages, smiles and dimples. At one time he took to direct imitation or reproduction of Albert Diirer, and executed a series of paintings founded on the Passion subjects of the German master, not only in composition, but even in such peculiarities as the treatment of draperies, &c. Pontormo died of dropsy on the 2nd of January 1557, mortified at the ill success of his frescoes in S. Lorenzo; he was buried below his work in the Servi. 'PONTREMOLI, a town and bishop's see of the province of Massa and Carrara, Tuscany, Italy, in the upper valley of the Magra, 25 m. N. by E. of Spezia by rail and 49 m. S.S.W. of Parma, 843 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4107 (town); 14,570 (commune). It has a 17th-century cathedral. The church of the Annunziata with its Augustinian monastery is interesting. There are also mineral springs. The town, which is well situated among the mountains, was an independent republic in the I2th and i3th centuries, and in 1495 was sacked by the troops of Charles VIII. of France. It was much damaged by an earthquake in 1834. PONTUS, a name applied in ancient times to extensive tracts of country in the north-east of Asia Minor bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pantos (the Main), by the Greeks. The exact signification of this purely territorial name varied greatly at different times. The Greeks used it loosely of various parts of the shores of the Euxine, and the term did not get a definite connotation till after the establishment of the kingdom founded beyond the Halys during the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great, about 301 B.C., by Mithradates I., Ktistes, son of a Persian satrap in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors, and ruled by a succession of kings, mostly bearing the same name, till 64 B.C. As the greater part of this kingdom lay within the immense region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine, the kingdom as a whole was at first called " Cappadocia towards the Pontus " (jrpis rcS ILWtd), but afterwards simply " Pontus," the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title. Under the last king, Mithradates Eupator, commonly called the Great, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia (see under MITHRA- DATES). With the destruction of this kingdom by Pompey in 64 B.C., the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change. Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province called " Pontus and Bithynia": this part included (possibly from the first, but certainly from about 40 B.C. onwards) only the seaboard between Heracleia (Eregli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica. Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament. But it was also frequently used to denote (in whole or part) that portion of the old Mithradatic kingdom which lay between the Halys (roughly) and the borders of Colchis, Lesser Armenia, Cappadocia and Galatia — the region properly designated by the title " Cappadocia towards the Pontus," which was always the nucleus of the Pontic kingdom. This region is regarded by the geographer Strabo (A.D. 19-20), himself a native of the country, as Pontus in the strict sense of the term (Geogr. p. 678). Its native population was of the same stock as that of Cappadocia, of which it had formed a part, an Oriental race often called by the Greeks Leucosyri or White Syrians, as distinguished from the southern Syrians, who were of a darker complexion, but their precise ethnological relations are uncertain. Geographically it is a table-land, forming the north-east corner of the great plateau of Asia Minor, edged on the north by a lofty mountain rim, along the foot of which runs a fringe of coast-land. The table-land consists of a series of fertile plains, of varying size and elevation separated from each other by upland tracts or mountains, and it is drained almost entirely by the river Iris (Yeshil Irmak) and its numerous tributaries, the largest of which are the Scylax (Tchekerek Irmak) with many affluents and the Lycus (Kalkid Irmak), all three rising in the highlands near, or on, the frontier of Armenia Minor and flowing first in a westerly and then in a north-westerly direction to merge their waters in a joint stream, which (under the name of the Iris) pierces the mountain-wall and emerges on the east . of Amisus (Samsun). Between the Halys and the Iris the mountain rim is comparatively low and broken, but east of the Iris it is a continuous lofty ridge (called by the ancients Pary- adres and Scydises), whose rugged northern slopes are furrowed by torrent beds, down which a host of small streams (among them the Thermodon, famed in Amazon story) tumble to the sea. These inaccessible slopes were inhabited even in Strabo's time by wild, half-barbarous tribes, of whose ethnical relations we are ignorant — the Chalybes (identified by the Greeks with Homer's Chalybes), Tibareni, Mosynoeci and Macrones, on whose manners and condition some light is thrown by Xenophon (Anab. V). But the fringe of coast-land from Trebizond westward is one of the most beautiful parts of Asia Minor and is justly extolled by Strabo for its wonderful productiveness. The sea-coast, like the rest of the south shore of the Euxine, was studded with Greek colonies founded from the 6th century onwards: Amisus, a colony of Miletus, which in the 5th century received a body of Athenian settlers, now the port of Samsun; Cotyora, now Ordu; Cerasus, the later Pharnacia, now Kerasund; and Trapezus (Trebizond), a famous city from Xenophon's time till the end of the middle ages. The last three were colonies of Sinope, itself a Milesian colony. The chief towns in the interior were Amasia, on the Iris, the birthplace of Strabo, the capital of Mithradates the Great, and the burial-place of the earlier kings, whose tombs still exist; Comana, higher up the river, a famous centre of the worship of the goddess Ma (or Cybele); Zela, another great religious centre, refounded by Pompey, now Zileh; Eupatoria, refounded by Pompey as Magnopolis at the junction of the Lycus and Iris; Cabira, Pompey's Diospolis, afterwards Neocaesarea, now Niksar; Sebastopolis on the Scylax, now Sulu Serai; Sebasteia, now Srvas; and Megalopolis, a foundation of Pompey, somewhere in the same district. The history of this region is the history of the advance of the Roman Empire towards the Euphrates. Its political position between 64 and 41 B.C., when Mark Antony became master of the East, is not quite certain. Part of it was handed over by Pompey to client princes: the coast-land east of the Halys (except the territory of Amisus) and the hill-tribes of Paryadres were given, with Lesser Armenia, to the Galatian chief Deiotarus, with the title of king; Comana was left under the rule of its high-priest. The rest of the interior was parti- tioned by Pompey amongst the inland cities, almost all of which were founded by him, and, according to one view, was included together with the seaboard west of Amisus and the corner of north- east Paphlagonia possessed by Mithradates in his new province PONTUS DE TYARD— PONTYPRIDD Pontus-Bithynia. Others maintain that only the seaboard W;IN included in the province, the inland cities being constituted self-governing, " protected " communities. The latter view is more in conformity with Roman policy in the East, which did not usually annex countries till they reached (under the rule of client princes) a certain level of civilization and order, but it is difficult to reconcile with Strabo's statements (p. 541 sqq.)- In any case, during the years following 40 B.C. all inland Pontus was handed over, like north-east Paphlagonia, to native dynasts. The Pontic possessions of Deiotarus (d. 40 B.C.) were given with additions (e.g. Cabira) in 39 B.C. to Darius, son of I'harnaces, and in 36 B.C. to Polemon, son of a rhetorician of Laodicea on the Lycus. The high-priest of Comana, Lycomedes, received an accession of territory and the royal title. The territories of Zela and Megalopolis were divided between Lyco- medes, the high-priest of Zela and Ateporix, who ruled the principality of Carana (later Sebastopolis). Amasia and Amisus were also given to native princes. After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus restored Amisus as a " free city " to the province of Bithynia-Pontus, but made no other serious change. Polemon retained his king- dom till his death in 8 B.C., when it passed to his widow Pytho- doris. But presently the process of annexation began and the Pontic districts were gradually incorporated in the empire, each being attached to the province of Galatia, then the centre of Roman forward policy, (i) The western district was an- nexed in two sections, Sebastopolis and Amasia in 3-2 B.C., and Comana in A.D. 34-35. To distinguish this district from the province Pontus and Polemon's Pontus, it was henceforth called Pontus galalicus (as being the first part attached to Galatia). (2) Polemon's kingdom, ruled since A.D. 38 by Pole- mon II., grandson of the former king, was annexed by Nero in A.D. 64-65, and distinguished by the title of Pontus polemoniacus, which survived for centuries. [But the simple name Pontus, hitherto commonly used to designate Polemon's realm, is still employed to denote this district by itself or in conjunction with Pontus Galaticus, where the context makes the meaning clear (e.g. in inscriptions and on coins).] Polemoniacus included the sea-coast from the Thermodon to Cotyora and the inland cities Zela, Magnopolis, Megalopolis, Neocaesarea and Sebasteia (according to Ptolemy, but apparently annexed since 2 B.C., according to its coins). (3) Finally, at the same time (A.D. 64) was annexed the remaining eastern part of Pontus, which formed part of Polemon's realm but was attached to the province Cappadocia and distinguished by the epithet cappadodcus. These three districts formed distinct adminis- trative divisions within the provinces to which they were attached, with separate capitals Amasia, Neocaesarea and Trapezus; but the first two were afterwards merged in one, sometimes called Pontus mediterraneus, with Neocaesarea as capital, probably when they were definitively transferred (about A.D. 114) to Cappadocia, then the great frontier military province. With the reorganization of the provincial system under Diocletian (about A.D. 295), the Pontic districts were divided up between four provinces of the dioecesis pontica: (i) Paphla- gonia, to which was attached most of the old province Pontus; (2) Diospontus, re-named Helenopontus by Constantine, con- taining the rest of the province Pontus and the adjoining dis- trict, eight cities in all (including Sinope, Amisus and Zela) with Amasia as capital; (3) Pontus Polemoniacus, containing Comana, Polemonium, Cerasus and Trapezus with Neocaesarea as capital; and (4) Armenia Minor, five cities, with Sebasteia, as capital. This rearrangement gave place in turn to the Byzantine system of military districts (themes). Christianity was introduced into the province Pontus (the Ora pontka) by way of the sea in the ist century after Christ and was deeply rooted when Pliny governed the province (A.D. 111-113). But the Christianization of the inland Pontic districts began only about the middle of the 3rd century and was largely due to the missionary zeal of Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocaesarea. See Ramsay, Histor. Geogr. of Asia Minor (1890); Anderson and Cumont, Studia pontica (1903 et seq.); Babelon and Reinach, Recueil des monnates d'Asie min., t. i. (1904) ; H. Grdgoire, " Voyage dans le Pont " &c. in Bull, de corres. hell. (1909). (J- G. C. A.) PONTUS DE TYARD (c. 1521-1605), French poet and member of the Pleiade (see DAURAT), was seigneur of Bissy in Burgundy, where he was born in or about 1521. He was a friend of Antoine Heroet and Maurice Sceve, and to a certain extent anticipated Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay. His Erreurs amoureuses, originally published in 1549, was augmented with other poems in successive editions till 1573. On the whole his poetry is inferior to that of his companions, but he was one of the first to write sonnets in French (the actual priority belongs to Melin de St Gelais). It is also said that he introduced the sestine into France, or rather reintroduced it, for it was originally a Provencal invention. In his later years he gave himself up to the study of mathematics and philosophy. He became bishop of Chalons-sur-Sa&ne in 1578, and in 1587 appeared his Discours phUosophiques. He was a zealous defender of the cause of Henry III. against the pretensions of the Guises. This attitude brought down on him the vengeance of the league; he was driven from Chalons and his chateau at Bissy was plundered. He survived all the members of the Pleiade and lived to see the onslaught made on their doctrines by Malherbe. Pontus resigned his bishopric in 1594, and retired to the chateau de Bragny, where he died on the 23rd of September 1605. His Oeuvres poetiques may be found in the Pleiade fran^aise (1875) of M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux. PONTYPOOL, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 8 m. N. of Newport, served by the Great Western, London & North-Western, and Rhymney railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 6126. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity above the Afon Lwyd, a tributary of the Usk. Its prosperity is due to its situation on the edge of the great coal- and iron-field of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire. The earliest record of trade in iron is in 1588, but it was developed chiefly in the beginning of the i8th century by the family of Hanbury, the proprietors of Pontypool Park. Pontypool was formerly famed for its japanned goods, invented by Thomas Allwood, a native of Northampton, who settled in the town in the reign of Charles II., but the manu- facture has long been transferred elsewhere. The town and neighbourhood contain large forges and iron mills for the manu- facture of iron-work and tin-plate. Water communication is afforded with Newport by the Monmouthshire Canal. On the south-east of Pontypool is the urban district of Panteg, including Griffithstown, with a population (1901) of 7484. PONTYPRIDD, a parish, market town, and urban district, in the eastern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated on the Taff at its junction with the Rhondda, on the Taff Vale railway, and on the Glamorganshire Canal, 12 m. N.N.W. from Cardiff, 128. from Merthyr-Tydfil, and 169 by rail from London. It is also connected with Newport by a Great Western line i8J m. long. Pop. (1901), 32,316. It receives its name from a remarkable bridge of one arch spanning the Taff, erected in 1755 by William Edwards, a self-taught mason. The bridge is a perfect segment of a circle, the chord being 140 ft., and the height at low water 36 ft. A three-arched bridge was erected close to it in 1857. The town is built at the junc- tion of the three parishes of Llanwonno, Llantwit Fardre and Eglwysilan, out of portions of which Glyntaff was formed into an ecclesiastical parish in 1848, and from this Pontypridd was carved in 1884. The urban district was constituted into a civil parish in 1894. The church of St Catherine, built in 1868, enlarged in 1885, is in early Decorated style; other places of worship are the Baptist, Calvinistic Methodist, Congrega- tional, and Wesleyan chapels. The principal secular buildings are a masonic hall, town-hall built above the market, free library (1890), county intermediate school (1895) and court-house. Near the town is a far-famed rocking-stone 9^ tons in weight, known as the Maen Chwyf, round which a circle of small stones was set up in the middle of the igth century under the direction PONY— POOLE, R. S. of Myvyr Morganwg, who used to style himself archdruid of Wales. The place became, for a time, famous as a meeting place for neo-Druidic gatherings. Pontypridd was an insig- nificant village till the opening of the Taff Vale railway into the town in 1840, and it owed its progress chiefly to the de- velopment of the coal areas of the Rhondda Valley, for which district it serves as the market town and chief business centre. It also possesses anchor, chain, and cable works, chemical works, and iron and brass foundries. Pontypridd has, jointly with Rhondda, a stipendiary magistrate since 1872. PONY (from the Lowland Scots powney, probably from O. Fr. pouleriet, diminutive of poulain, a colt or foal; Late Lat. pullanus, Lat. pullus, a young animal), a horse of a small breed, sometimes confined to such as do not exceed 13 hands in height, but generally applied to any horse under 14 hands (see HORSE). The word is of frequent use as a slang term — e.g. for a sum of £25; for a liquor measure or glass containing less than a half-pint; and in America for a literal translation of a foreign or classical author, a " crib." PONZA (anc. Poniiae), the principal of a small group of islands belonging to Italy. Pop. (1901), 4621. The group is of volcanic origin, and includes Palmarola (anc. Palmaria), Zannone (Sinonia), Ventotene (Pandateria, pop. in 1901, 1986) and San Stefano. It is situated about 20 m. S. of Monte Circeo and 70 m. W. of Naples, and belongs partly to the province of Caserta and partly to that of Naples (Ventotene). There is regular communication with Naples by steamer, and in summer with Anzio. The islands rise to a height of about 70 ft. above sea- level. They are now penal settlements, and their isolated character led to their being similarly used in ancient times. A colony with Latin rights was founded on Pontiae in 313 B.C. Nero, Germanicus's eldest son, and the sisters of Caligula, were confined upon it; while Pandateria was the place of banishment of Julia, daughter of Augustus, of her daughter Agrippina the elder, and of Octavia, the divorced wife of Nero. POOD, a Russian weight, equivalent to 40 ft Russian and about 36 Ib avoirdupois. A little more than 62 poods go to the ton. The word is an adaptation of the Low German or Norse pund, pound. POOL, (i) A pond, or a small body of still water; also a place in a river or stream where the water is deep and still, so applied in the Thames to that part of the river known as The Pool, which reaches from below London Bridge to Limehouse. The word in Old English was pdl, which may be related to pull or pyll, and the similar Celtic words, e.g. Cornish pol, a creek, common on the Bristol Channel and estuary of the Severn, on the English side in the form " pill." A further connexion has been suggested with Lat. palus, marsh; Gr. 7117X65, mud. (2) A name for the stakes, penalties, &c., in various card and other games when collected together to be paid out to the winners; also the name of a variety of games of billiards (q.v.). This word has a curious history. It is certainly adapted from Fr. poule, hen, chicken, apparently a slang term for the stakes in a game, possibly, as the New English Dictionary suggests, used as a synonym for plunder, booty. " Chicken-hazard " might be cited as a parallel, though that has been taken to be a cor- ruption of " chequeen," a form of the Turkish coin, a sequin. When the word came into use in English at the end of the i7th century, it seems to have been at once identified with " pool," pond, as Fr. fiche (ficher, to fix), a counter, was with "fish," counters in card games often taking the form of " fish " made of mother-of-pearl, &c. " Pool," in the sense of a common fund, has been adopted as a commercial term for a combination for the purpose of speculating in stocks and shares, the several owners of securities " pooling " them and placing them under a single control, and sharing all losses and profits. Similarly the name is given to a form of trade combination, especially in railway or shipping companies, by which the receipts or profits are divided on a certain agreed-upon basis, for the purpose of avoiding competition (see TRUSTS). POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1679), English Nonconformist theologian, was born at York, educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and from 1649 till the passing of the Act of Unifor- mity (1662) held the rectory of St Michael le Querne, London. Subsequent troubles led to his withdrawal to Holla'nd, and he died at Amsterdam in 1679. The work with which his name is principally associated is the Synopsis crUicorum biblicorum (5 vols. fol., 1669-1676), in which he summarizes the views of one hundred and fifty biblical critics. He also wrote English Anno- tations on the Holy Bible, as far as Isa. Iviii. — a work which was completed by several of his Nonconformist brethren, and published in 2 vols. fol. in 1683. POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879), English painter, was born at Bristol in 1806. Though self-taught his fine feeling for colour, poetic sympathy and dramatic power gained for him a high position among British artists. He exhibited his first work in the Royal Academy at the age of twenty-five, the sub- ject being " The Well," a scene in Naples. There was an interval of seven years before he next exhibited his " Farewell, Farewell " in 1837, which was followed by the " Emigrant's Departure," " Hermann and Dorothea " and " By the Waters of Babylon." In 1843 his position was made secure by his " Solomon Eagle," and by his success in the.Cartoon Exhibition, in which he received from the Fine Art Commissioners a prize of £300 sterling. After his exhibition of the " Surrender of Syon House " he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1846, and was made an academician in 1861. He died in 1879. Poole's subjects divide themselves into two orders — one idyllic, the other dramatic. Of the former his " May Day " (1852) is a typical example. Of both styles there were excellent examples to be seen in the small collection of his works shown at Burlington House in the Winter Exhibition of 1883-1884. Among his early dramatic pictures was " Solomon Eagle ex- horting the People to Repentance during the Plague of 1665," painted in 1843. To this class belongs also the " Messenger announcing to Job the Irruption of the Sabeans and the Slaughter of the Servants " (exhibited in 1850), and " Robert, Duke of Normandy and Arietta " (1848). Finer examples of his more mature power in this direction are to be found in his " Prodigal Son," painted in 1869; the " Escape of Glaucusand lone with the blind girl Nydia from Pompeii" (1860); and " Cunstaunce sent adrift by the Constable of Alia, King of Northumberland," painted in 1868. More peaceful than these are the " Song of Troubadours " (painted in 1854) and the " Goths in Italy " (1851), the latter an important historical work of great power and beauty. Of a less lofty strain, but still more beautiful in its workmanship, is the " Seventh Day of the Decameron," painted in 1857. In this picture Poole rises to his full height as a colourist. In his pastorals he is soft and tender, as in the " Mountain Path " (1853), the " Water-cress Gatherers " (1870), the " Shepston Maiden " (1872). But when he turns to the grander and 'more sublime views of nature his work is bold and vigorous. Fine examples of this style may be seen in the " Vision of Ezekiel " of the National Gallery, " Solitude " (1876), the "Entrance to the Cave of Mammon" (1875), the " Dragon's Cavern" (1877), and perhaps best of all in the "Lion in the Path " (1873), a great representation of mountain and cloud form. POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895), English archae- ologist and orientalist, was born in London on the 27th of January 1832. His father was the Rev. Edward Poole, a well- known bibliophile. His mother, Sopha, authoress of The Englishwoman in Egypt (1844), was the sister of E. W. Lane, the Arabic scholar, with whom R. S. Poole lived in Cairo from 1842 to 1849, thus imbibing an early taste for Egyptian antiquities. In 1852 he became an assistant in the British Museum, and was assigned to the department of coins and medals, of which in 1870 he became keeper. In that capacity he did work of the highest value, alike as a writer, teacher and administrator. In 1882 he was largely responsible for founding the Egypt Exploration Fund, and in 1884 for starting the Society of English Medallists. He retired in 1893, and died on the 8th of February 1895. Some of Poole's best work was done in his articles for the Ency. Brit, (gth ed.) on Egypt, Hieroglyphics POOLE— POOP 73 and Numismatics, and considerable portions have been retained in the present edition, even though later research has been active in his sphere of work; he also wrote for Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and published several volumes dealing with his special subjects. He was for some time professor of archae- ology at University College, London, and also lecturer at the Royal Academy. His elder brother, EDWARD STANLEY POOLE (1830-1867), who was chief clerk in the science and art department at South Kensington, was an Arabic scholar, whose early death cut short a promising career. His two sons, Stanley Lane-Poole (b. 1854), professor of Arabic in Trinity College, Dublin, and Reginald Lane-Poole (b. 1857), keeper of the archives at Oxford, lecturer in diplomatic, and author of various historical works, carried on the family tradition of scholarship. POOLE, a municipal borough, county in itself, market town and seaport in the eastern parliamentary division of Dor- setshire, England, 113^ m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 19,463. It is picturesquely situated on a peninsula between Holes Bay and the shallow irregular inlet of Poole Harbour. There are several modern churches, a guildhall, public library and school of art. Poole Harbour, extending inland 6 m., with a general breadth of 4 m., has a very narrow entrance, and is studded with low islands, on the largest of which, Brownsea or Branksea, is a castle, transformed into a residence, erected as a defence of the harbour in Tudor times, and strengthened by Charles I. Potters' clay is worked here. At low water the harbour is entirely emptied except a narrow channel, when there is a depth of 8J ft. There are some valuable oyster beds. There is a considerable general coasting trade, and clay is exported to the Staffordshire potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on, and there are manufacturers of cordage, netting and sail- cloth. The town also possesses potteries, decorative tileworks, iron foundries, agricultural implement works and flour-mills. Poole Park, containing 40 acres of land and 62 acres of water, was acquired in 1887 and 1889, and Branksome Park, of 40 acres, in 1895. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 1 8 councillors. Area, 5333 acres. Although the neighbourhood abounds -in British earth- works and barrows, and there are traces of a Roman road lead- ing from Poole to Wimborne, Poole (La Pole) is not mentioned by the early chroniclers or in Domesday Book. The manor, part of that of Canford, belonged in 1086 to Edward of Salis- bury, and passed by marriage to William Longespde, earl of Salisbury, thence to Edmund de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and with his heiress to Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and so to the Crown. Poole is first mentioned in a writ of 1 224, addressed to the bailiffs and good men of La Pole, ordering them to retain all ships within their port. Entries in the Patent Rolls show that Poole had considerable trade before William de Longespee, earl of Salis- bury, granted the burgesses a charter about 1248 assuring to them all liberties and free customs within his borough. The bailiff was to be chosen by the lord from six men elected by the burgesses, and was to hold pleas for breach of measures and assizes. It is uncertain when the burgesses obtained their town at the fee-farm rent of £8, 135. 4d. mentioned in 1312. The mayor, bailiffs and good men are first mentioned in 1311 and were required to provide two ships for service against Robert de Brus. In 1372 the burgesses obtained assize of bread and ale, and right to hold the courts of the lord of the manor, the prepositus being styled his mayor. The burgesses were licensed in 1433 to fortify the town; this was renewed in 1462, when the mayor was given cognisance of the staple. Elizabeth incorporated Poole in 1569 and made it a separate county; Charles II. gave a charter in 1667. The corporation was suspended after a writ of quo warranto in 1686, the town being governed by the commission of the peace until the charters were renewed in 1688. Poole returned two members to parliament in 1362 and 1368, and regularly from 1452 to 1867, when the representation was reduced, ceasing in 1885. It is uncertain when the Thursday market was granted, but the present fairs on the Feasts of SS Philip and James and All Saints were granted in 1453- Poole, as the headquarters of the Parliamentary forces in Dorset during the Civil War, escaped the siege that crippled so many of its neighbours. When Charles II. visited the town in 1665 a large trade was carried on in stockings, though the prosperity of Poole still depended on its usefulness as a port. POONA, or PUNA, a city and district of British India, in the Central division of Bombay. The city is at the confluence of the Mutha and Mula rivers, 1850 ft. above sea-level and 1 19 m. S.E. from Bombay on the Great Indian Peninsula railway. Municipal area, about 4 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 153,320. It is pleasantly situated amid extensive gardens, with a large num- ber of modern public buildings, and also many temples and palaces dating from the i6th to the igth century. The palace of the peshwas is a ruin, having been destroyed by fire in 1827. From its healthy situation Poona has been chosen not only as the headquarters of the 6th division of the Southern army, but also as the residence of the governor of Bombay during the rainy season, from June to September. The native town, along the river bank, is somewhat poorly built. The European quarter, including the cantonment, extends north-west towards Kirkee. The waterworks were constructed mainly by the munificence of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. Poona was never a great centre of trade or manufacture though still noted for brass-work, jewelry and other articles of luxury. Cotton-mills, paper- mills, a brewery (at Dapuri), flour-mills, factories of ice and mineral waters, and dairy farms furnish the chief industries. Educational institutions are numerous. They include the government Deccan College, with a law class; the aided Fer- gusson college; the government colleges of science and agricul- ture; high schools; training schools for masters and mistresses; medical school; and municipal technical school. The recent history of Poona has been painfully associated with the plague. During 1897, when the city was first attacked, the death-rate rose to 93 pef 1000 in Poona city, 71 per 1000 in the canton- ment, and 93 per 1000 in Kirkee. The DISTRICT OF POONA has an area of 5349 sq. m. Popula- tion (1901), 995,330, showing an increase of 18% after the dis- astrous famine of 1876-1877, but a decrease of 7% in the last decade. Towards the west the country is undulating, and numerous spurs from the Western Ghats enter the district; to the east it opens out into plains. It is watered by many streams which, rising in the ghats, flow eastwards until they join the Bhima, a river which intersects the district from north to south. The principal crops are millets, pulses, oil-seeds, wheat, rice, sugar- cane, vegetables and fruit (including grapes). The two most important irrigation works in the Deccan are the Mutha canal, with which the Poona waterworks are connected, and the Nira canal. There are manufactures of cotton, silk and blankets. The district is traversed by the Great Indian Peninsula railway, and also by the Southern Mahratta line, which starts from Poona city towards Satara. It is liable to drought, from which it suffered severely in 1866-1867, 1876-1877, and again in 1896-1897. In the 1 7th century the district formed part of the Mahom- medan kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Sivaji was born within its boundaries at Junnar in 1627, and he was brought up at Poona town as the headquarters of the hereditary fief of his father. The district thus was the early centre of the Mahratta power; and when Satara became first the capital and later the prison of the descendants of Sivaji, Poona continued to be the seat of government under their hereditary ministers, with the title of peshwa. Many stirring scenes in Mahratta history were enacted here. Holkar defeated the last peshwa under its walls, and his flight to Bassein led to the treaty by which he put himself under British protection. He was reinstated in 1802, but, unable to maintain friendly relations, he attacked the British at Kirkee in 1817, and his kingdom passed from him. POOP (Lat. puppis, stern), the stern or after-part of a ship; in the i6th and 1 7th centuries a lofty and castellated deck. The verb " to poop " is used of a wave breaking over the stern of a vessel. 74 POORE— POOR LAW POORE (or POOR), RICHARD (d. 1237), English bishop, was a son of Richard of Ilchester, bishop of Winchester. About 1197 he was chosen dean of Sarum and, after being an un- successful candidate for the bishoprics of Winchester and of Durham, he became bishop of Chichester in 1214. In 1217 he was translated to Salisbury, where he succeeded his elder brother, Herbert Poore, and in 1228 to Durham. He died at Tarrant Monkton, Dorset, said by some to be his birthplace, on the isth of April 1237. Poore took some part in public affairs, under Henry III., but the great work of his life was done at Salisbury. Having in 1219 removed his see from Old to New Sarum, or Salisbury, he began the building of the magnificent cathedral there; he laid the foundation stone in April 1220, and during his episcopate he found money and forwarded the work in other ways. For the city the bishop secured a charter from Henry III. and he was responsible for the plan on which it was built, a plan which to some extent it still retains. He had something to do with drawing up some statutes for his cathedral; he is said to be responsible for the final form of the " use of Sarum," and he was probably the author of the Ancren Riwle, a valuable " picture of contemporary life, manners and feeling " written in Middle English. His supposed identity with the jurist, Ricardus Anglicus, is more doubtful. POOR LAW. The phrase " poor law " in English usage denotes the legislation embodying the measures taken by the state for the relief of paupers and its administration. The history of the subject and its problems generally are dealt with in the article CHARITY AND CHARITIES, and other information will be found in UNEMPLOYMENT and VAGRANCY. This article will deal only with the practice in the United Kingdom as adopted after the reform of the poor law in 1834 and amended by subsequent acts. This reform was brought about mainly by the rapid increase of the poor rate at the beginning of the 19th century, showing that a change was necessary either in the poor law as it then existed or in the mode of its adminis- tration. A commission was appointed in 1832 " to make diligent and full inquiry into the practical operation of the laws for the relief of the poor in England and Wales, and into the manner in which those laws were administered, and to report their opinion as to what beneficial alterations could be made." The com- missioners reported " fully on the great abuse of the legislative provision for the poor as directed to be employed by the statute of Elizabeth," finding "that the great source of abuse was the outdoor relief afforded to the able-bodied on their own account or on that of their families, given either in kind or in money." They also reported that " great maladministration existed in the workhouses." To remedy the evils they proposed con- siderable alterations in the law, and the principal portion of their suggestions was embodied in the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. By virtue of this act three commissioners were appointed (originally for five years, but subsequently con- tinued from time to time) , styled " the poor law commissioners for England and Wales," sitting as a board, and appointing assistant commissioners and other officers. The administration of relief according to the existing laws was subject to their direction and control, and to their orders and regulations for the government of workhouses and the guidance and control of guardians and vestries and the keeping and allowing of accounts and contracts, without interfering with ordinary relief in individual cases. The whole of England and Wales was divided into twenty-one districts, to each of which an assistant commissioner was appointed. The commissioners under their powers formed poor law unions by uniting parishes for general administration, and building workhouses, guardians elected by the ratepayers (or ex officio) having the general government and administration of relief. The expense was apportioned to each parish on settled principles and rules, with power, however, to treat the united parishes as one for certain purposes. Out- door relief might be given, on the order of two justices, to poor persons wholly unable to work from old age or infirmity. The obstacles which the act had to contend with in London chiefly arose from the confusion and perplexity of jurisdiction which existed in the one hundred and seventy parishes com- prised within the city of London and the metropolitan district, some of these containing governing bodies of their own; in some the parish business was professedly managed by open vestries, in others by select vestries, and in addition to these there were elective vestries, while the majority of the large parishes were managed under local acts by boards of directors, governors and trustees. These governing bodies executed a great variety of functions besides regulating the management of the poor. The power, patronage and the indirect advantages which arose from the administration of the local funds were so great that much opposition took place when it was proposed to interfere by constituting a board to be annually chosen and freely elected by the ratepayers, on which the duty of regulating the expen- diture for the relief of the poor was to depend. The general management of the poor was, however, on a somewhat better footing in London than in the country. The act of 1834 was rather to restore the scope and intention of the statute of Elizabeth by placing its administration in the hands of responsible persons chosen by the ratepayers, and themselves controlled by the orders of a central body, than to create a new system of poor laws. The agents and instruments by which the administration of relief is afforded are the fol- lowing. The description applies to the year 1910, but, as noticed below, the question of further reform was already to the fore, and the precise direction in which changes should go was a highly controversial matter. The guardians of the poor regulate the cases and description of relief within the union; a certain number of guardians are elected from time to time by the ratepayers. The number was formerly determined by the central board,1 by whom full directions as to the mode of election were given. In addition to those elected there were ex officio guardians, principally local magistrates. However, both these and nominated guardians were done away with by the Local Government Act 1894. The plural vote (which gave to the votes of the larger ratepayers a higher value) was also abolished; and in place of the old property qualification for the office of guardian a ratepaying or residential qualification was sub- stituted. In urban districts the act in other respects left the board of guardians untouched, but in rural districts it inaugu- rated a policy of consolidating local authorities. In the rural districts the district council is practically amalgamated with the guardians, for, though each body retains a separate corporate existence, the district councillors are the guardians, and guar- dians as such are no longer elected. These electoral changes, extremely democratic in their character, brought about no marked general change in poor law administration. Here and there abrupt changes of policy were made, but the difficulty of bringing general principles to bear on the administration of the law remained much as before. The guardians hold their meetings frequently, according to the exigencies of the union. Individual cases are brought to their notice— most cases of resident poor by the relieving officer of the union; the case of casual paupers by him or by the work- house officers by whom they were admitted in the first instance. The resident poor frequently appear in person before the guar- dians. The mode of voting which the guardians follow in respect to any matter they differ on is minutely regulated, and all their proceedings, as well as those of their officers, are entered in pre- scribed books and forms. They have a clerk, generally a local solicitor of experience, who has a variety of responsible duties in advising, conducting correspondence and keeping books of 'After an intermediate transfer in 1847 of the powers of the poor law commissioners, and the constitution of a fresh board styled " commissioners for administering the laws for relief of the poor in England," it was found expedient to concentrate in one department of the government the supervision of the laws relating to the public health, the relief of the poor and local government; and this concentration was in 1871 carried out by the establishment (by Act of Parliament 34 & 35 Viet. c. 70) of the local government board. POOR LAW 75 accounts, and carrying out the directions of the guardians, who in their turn are subject to the general or special regulations of the local government board. It may be mentioned here that the chief difficulty in under- standing the English poor law arises from the fact that there are three authorities, each of them able to alter its administration fundamentally. The poor law is not only the creation of statutes passed by parliament; it is also controlled by the subordinate jurisdiction of the local government board, which in virtue of various acts has the power to issue orders. In a single year the local government board may issue nearly two thousand orders, over a thousand of them having special reference to the poor law. It is not possible therefore even to summarize the mass of subordinate legislation. A third source of authority is the local board of guardians, which, within the discretion allowed to it by statutes and orders, can so variously administer the law that it is difficult to understand how procedure so fundamentally different can be based on one and the same law. This elasticity, admirable or mischievous, as we choose to regard it, is the most characteristic feature of the English poor law system. The various officers of the union, from the medical officers to workhouse porters, including masters and matrons of workhouses, are generally appointed by the guardians, and the areas, duties and salaries of ah1 the paid officers may be prescribed by the local government board. Among a multitude of miscellaneous duties and powers of the guardians, apart from the ordinary duties of ordering or refusing relief in individual cases and superintending the officers of the union, the duties devolve on them of considering the adjustment of contributions to the common, fund whether of divided or added parishes, and matters affecting other unions, the building of workhouses and raising of money for that and other purposes, the taking of land on lease, the hiring of buildings, special provisions as to superannuation and allowances to officers, the maintenance and orders as to lunatics apart from individual instances, and the consideration of questions of settlement and removal. A paramount obligation rests on the guardians to attend to the actual visitation of workhouses, schools and other institutions and places in which the poor are interested, and to call attention to and report on any irregularity or neglect of duty. Guardians may charge the rates with the expenses of attending conferences for the discussion of matters con- nected with their duties (Poor Law Conferences Act 1883). In relation to expenditure the guardians have very considerable but restricted powers. Their accounts are audited by district auditors appointed by the local government board. Overseers of the poor are still appointed under the statute of Elizabeth, and the guardians cannot interfere with the ap- Orerseers P°intment- As, however, the relief of the poor is administered by boards of guardians, the principal duties of overseers relate to the making and collection of rates and payments. The guardians, by order of the local govern- ment board, may appoint assistant overseers and collectors. The conditions of persons entitled to relief are indicated by the terms of the statute of Elizabeth. If they fall within the definitions there given they have right to relief. , ? . , .;, i i i- r fundamental principle with respect to legal relief of the poor is that the condition of the pauper ought to be, on the whole, Igss eligible than that of the independent labourer. The pauper has no just ground for complaint, if, while his physical wants are adequately provided for, his condition is less eligible than that of the poorest class of those who contribute to his support. If a state of destitution exists, the failure of third persons to perform their duty, as a husband, or relative mentioned in the statute of Elizabeth, neglecting those he is under a legal obligation to support, is no answer to the application. The relief should be afforded, and is often a condition precedent to the right of parish officers to take proceedings against the relatives or to apply to other poor unions. The duty to give immediate relief must, however, vary with the circumstances. The case of wanderers under circumstances not admitting of delay may be different from Conditions that of persons resident on the spot where inquiry as to all the circumstances is practicable. The statute of Elizabeth con- templated that the relief was to be afforded to the poor resi- dent in the parish, but it is contrary to the spirit of the law that any person shall be permitted to perish from starvation or want of medical assistance. Whoever is by sudden emergency or urgent distress deprived of the ordinary means of subsistence has a right to apply for immediate relief where he may happen to be. Persons comprehended within this class are called " casual poor," although the term " casuals " is generally used in reference to vagrants who take refuge for a short time in the " casual wards " of workhouses. Various tests are applied to ascertain whether applicants are really destitute. Labour tests are applied to the able-bodied, and workhouse tests are applied to those to whom entering a workhouse is made a condition of relief. As to the nature and kind of relief given under the poor laws the great distinction restored rather than introduced by the amendment of the poor law system in 1834 was Nature and giving all relief to able-bodied persons of their Kind of families in well-regulated workhouses (that is to *e/te/- say, places where they may be set to work according to the spirit and intention of the statute of Elizabeth), and confining outdoor relief to the impotent — that is, all except the able- bodied and their families. Although workhouses formed a conspicuous feature in legislation for the poor from an early period, the erection of those buildings for unions throughout the country where not already provided followed immediately on the amendment of the system in 1834. Since that time there has been a constant struggle between the pauper class and the administrators of the law, the former naturally wishing to be relieved at their own homes, and in many instances choosing rather to go without aid than to remove within the walls of the workhouse. Relief given in a workhouse is termed " in (or indoor) maintenance " relief, and when given at the homes of the paupers is termed " outdoor relief." Admission to a workhouse may be by a written order of the board of guardians, or by the master or matron (or in their absence by the porter) without an order in any case of sudden or urgent necessity, or provisionally by a relieving :7 officer, or overseer or churchwarden. Any person who is brought by a policeman as having been found wandering in a state of destitution may be admitted. It is to be observed generally, with respect to all persons who may apply for admission into the workhouse under circumstances of urgent necessity, that thc-ir destitution, coupled with the fact of being within the union cr parish, entitles them to relief, altogether independently of their ' settlement, if they have one, which is a matter for subsequent inquiry. The regulations for the government of workhouses fall under two classes: (i) those which are necessary for the maintenance of good order in any building in which considerable numbers of persons of both sexes and of different ages reside; (2) those which are necessary in order that these establishments may not be alms- houses, but workhouses in the proper meaning of the term. The inmates of a workhouse are necessarily separated into certain classes. In no well-managed institution of this sort, in any country, are males and females, the old and the young, the healthy and the sick, indiscriminately mixed together. Guardians are required to divide the paupers into certain classes, and to subdivide any one or more of these classes in any manner which may be advisable, and which the internal arrangements of the workhouse admit ; and the guardians are required from time to time, after consulting the medical officer, to make necessary arrangements with regard to per- sons labouring under any disease of body or mind, and, so far as cir- cumstances permit, to subdivide any of the enumerated classes with reference to the moral character or behaviour or the previous habits of the inmates, or to such other grounds as may seem expedient. The separation of married couples was long a vexed question, the evils on the one hand arising from the former unrestricted practice being very great, while on the other hand the separation of old couples was felt as a great hardship, and by express statutory ^pro- vision in 1847 husband and wife, both being above the age of sixty, received into a workhouse cannot be compelled to live separate and apart from each other (10 & n Viet. c. 109, § 23). This exemption was carried somewhat further by contemporaneous orders of the board, under which guardians were not compelled to separate infirm couples, provided they had a sleeping apartment separate from that of other paupers; and in 1876 guardians were empowered, at their discretion, to permit husband and wife where either of them is POOR LAW infirm, sick or disabled by any injury, or above sixty years of age to live together, but every such case must be reported to the local government board (39 & 40 Viet. c. 61, § 10). The classification of children apart from adult paupers is per- emptory. Even in those unions where what is called a workhouse school is maintained the children are kept in detached parts of the building, and do not associate with the adult paupers. The separate school is built on a separate and often distant site. Some- times the separate school is one building, sometimes detached " blocks," and sometimes a group of cottage homes. There still remain ten district schools. In some places an experiment which is called the scattered homes system has been adopted. This consists in lodging-homes for the children placed in different parts of the town, from which the children attend the local public ele- mentary schools. In the rural districts and in less populous unions the children generally attend the local public elementary school. To these expedients boarding-out must be added. The above refers of course only to those children who as inmates are under the charge of the guardians. Outdoor paupers are responsible for the education of their children, but guardians cannot legally continue outdoor relief if the children are not sent regularly to school. The tendency too has been to improve administrative methods with reference to children. Two important orders on the subject of the boarding-out of poor- law children were issued in 1889. By the Boarding of Children in Unions Order, orphan and deserted children can be boarded out with suitable foster-parents in the union by all boards of guardians except those in the metropolis. This can be done either through a voluntary committee or directly. By the Boarding Out Order, orphan and deserted children may be boarded out by all boards of guardians without the limits of their own unions, but in all cases this must be done through the offices of properly constituted local boarding-out committees. The sum payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 43. per week for each child. The local committee require to be approved by the Local Government Board. The question of the education of poor law children was much discussed in later years. During the early years of the central authority, it was the object of the commissioners to induce boards of guardians to unite in districts for educational purposes. This was advocated on grounds of efficiency and economy. It was very unpopular with the local authorities, and the number of such districts has never exceeded a dozen. In London, where this aggregation was certainly less desirable than in rural unions, several districts were formed and large district schools were built. Adverse criticism, by Mrs Nassau Senior in 1874, and by a department committee appointed twenty years later, was directed against these large, or, as they are invidiously called, barrack schools. The justice of this condemnation has been disputed, but it seems probable that some of these schools had grown too large. Many of these have been dissolved by order of the local government board on the application of the unions concerned. This con- demnation of some schools has in certain quarters been extended to all schools, and is construed by others as an unqualified recommendation of boarding out, a method of bringing up poor law children obviously requiring even more careful supervision than is needed in the publicity of a school. Other acts to be noted are the Poor Law Act 1889 and the Custody of Children Act 1891, § 3. The evil of allowing children who have been reputably brought up in poor law schools to relapse into vicious habits on return to the custody of unworthy parents has been the subject of frequent remark. By the act of 1889, guardians are authorized to detain children who are under their charge, as having been deserted by their parents, up to the age of 1 6 if boys and of 18 if girls. By the Poor Law Act 1899 the principle is extended to orphans and the children of bad parents chargeable to the rates. The act of 1891 goes further, and enacts that where a parent has (a) abandoned or deserted his child, or (6) allowed his child to be brought up by another person at that person's expense, or by the guardians of a poor law union for such a length of time and in such circumstances as to satisfy the court that the parent was unmindful of his parental duties, the court shall not make an order for the delivery of the child to the parent unless the parent has satisfied the court that, having regard to the welfare of the child, he is a fit person to have the custody of the child. Casual and poor wayfarers admitted by the master and matron are kept in a separate ward and dieted and set to work in such manner as the guardians by resolution direct; and whenever any vagrants or mendicants are received into a workhouse they are usually (as a precaution necessary for preventing the introduction of infectious or contagious diseases) kept entirely separate from the other inmates, unless their stay exceeds a single night. For the guidance of guardians an important circular was issued from the local government board on the I5th of March 1886. It stated that while " the board have no doubt that the powers which the guardians possess are fully sufficient to enable them to deal with ordinary pauperism, and to meet the demand for relief from the classes who usually seek it," yet " these provisions do not in all cases meet the emergency. What is required to relieve artisans and others who have hitherto avoided poor law assistance, and who are temporarily deprived of employment, is — (i) Work which will not involve the stigma of pauperism; (2) work which all can per- form, whatever may have been their previous occupations; (3) work which does not compete with that of other labourers at present in employment; and lastly, work which is not likely to interfere with the resumption of regular employment in their own trades by those who seek it." The circular went on to recommend that guardians should confer with the local authorities, " and endeavour to arrange with the latter for the execution of works on which unskilled labour may be immediately employed." The conditions of such work were (1) the men to be employed must be recommended by the guardians; (2) the wages must be less than the wages ordinarily paid for such work. The circular was widely distributed. Many boards that were inclined in that direction regarded it as an encouragement to open or to promote the opening of relief works. Others, again, looked closely at the conditions, and declared roundly that it was impos- sible to fulfil them. A poor law authority, they said, cannot give relief which will not subject the recipients to the legal (if any) and economic disabilities attaching to the receipt of poor law relief. Work which all can perform can only be found in the shape of task-work under adequate supervision. If the work is of a useful and necessary character, it must compete with the labour of others belonging to the trades affected. If the relief works are opened by authorities other than the poor law guardians, the conditions that the men were only to be employed when recommended by the guardians, and then paid less than the current rate of wages, were calculated, it was urged, to secure bad work, discontent, and all the " stigma of pauperism." The ambiguity of the circular indeed was such, that both action and inaction seem amply justified by it. In the administration of medical relief to the sick, the objects kept in view are: (i) to provide medical aid for persons who are really destitute, and (2) to prevent medical relief from generating or encouraging pauperism, and with this view to withdraw from the labouring classes, as well as from the administrators of relief and the medical officers, all motives for applying for or administering medical relief, unless where the circumstances render it absolutely necessary. Unions are formed into medical districts limited in area and population, to which a paid medical officer is appointed, who is furnished with a list of all such aged and infirm persons and persons permanently sick or disabled as are actually receiving relief and residing within the medical officer's district. Every person named in the list receives a ticket, and on exhibiting it to' the medical officer is entitled to advice, attendance and medicine as his case may require. Medical outdoor relief in connexion with dispen- saries is regulated in asylum districts of the metropolis by the Metropolitan Poor Act 1867 (30 & 31 Viet. c. 6). In connexion with medical relief must be noted the Medical Relief Disqualifica- tion Removal Act 1885. This act relieved voters from disquali- fication which would otherwise attach in consequence of the receipt by them or their families of medical or surgical assistance, or of medicine, at the expense of the poor rate. This does not apply to guardian elections, and it does not include persons who, in addition to medical relief, receive nourishment or other relief from the poor rate. The provisions which require the removal of the names of paupers from the electoral roll are, it is understood, very perfunctorily carried out. The Outdoor Relief Friendly Societies Act 1894 authorized guardians, in calculating the proper allowance to be made, to disregard an income derived from a friendly society, and to give relief as if the applicant in receipt of such an allowance was wholly destitute. This act is a curious illustration of the English poor law system. In earlier years, notably in what is known as Paget's letter (22nd Rep. Poor Law Board, p. 108), the central board, had, in answer to inquiry, pointed out that such preferential treatment given to men receiving benefit, insufficient to maintain them, from a friendly society, could not in equity be withheld from persons in receipt of an adequate benefit, or from those whose savings took the form of a deposit in a bank, of a share in a co-operative society, or of cottage property; and further, that an engagement on the part of guardians to supplement insufficient allowance from a friendly society was a bounty on inadequate and insolvent friendly society finance. The central board went so far as to say that relief given in such disregard of the pauper's income was illegal. They had, however, issued no peremptory order on the subject, nor had guardians been surcharged for neglect of the rule. The local authorities followed their own discretion, and a very general practice was to reckon friendly society allowances at half their value. The above act set aside the central board's earlier interpretation of the law. It made, however, no attempt to enforce its procedure on the numerous boards of guardians who regard the course thereby authorized as contrary to'public policy. A lunatic asylum is required to be provided by a county or borough for the reception of pauper lunatics, with a committee of visitors who, among other duties, fix a weekly sum to .„„.<»„« • • i f , ? j • • j* * i Lunatics- be charged for the lodging, maintenance, medicine and clothing of each pauper lunatic confined in such asylum. Several .acts were passed. The Lunacy Act 1890 consolidated the acts affecting lunatics. It was further amended by the Lunacy Act 1891. POOR LAW 77 An explanatory letter issued by the local government board will be found in the zoth Annual Report, p. 23. The tendency of this and of all recent legislation for an afflicted class has been to increase the care and the safeguards for their proper treatment. A settlement is the right acquired in any one of the modes pointed out by the poor laws to become a recipient of the benefit of those laws in that parish or place where the right has been last acquired. No relief is given from the poor rates of a parish to any person who does not reside within the union, except where such person TheQues- being casually within a parish becomes destitute by tloa ol sudden distress, or where such person is entitled to ••Settle- receive relief from any parish where non-resident meat." under justice's order (applicable to persons undef orders of removal and to non-resident lunatics), and except to >ws and legitimate children where the widow was resident with her husband at the time of his death out of the union in which she not settled, or where a child under sixteen is maintained in a workhouse or establishment for the education of pauper children nut situate in the union, and in some other exceptional cases. Immediately before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment \i t 1834 settlements were acquired by birth, hiring and service, apprenticeship, renting a tenement, estate, office or payment of rates. In addition to these an acknowledgment (by certificate), by relief or acts of acquiescence) has practically the effect of a settle- ment, for, if unexplained, such an acknowledgment stops the parish from disputing a settlement in the parish acknowledging. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 abolished settlement by hiring and service (or by residence under it) and by serving an office, and by apprenticeship in the sea service. Moreover the guardians of a union might agree (subject to the approval of the commissioners) (hat all the parishes forming it should for the purposes of settle- ment be considered as one parish. It is to be observed that, for the purposes of relief, settlement and removal and burial, the workhouse of any parish is considered i uated in the parish to which each poor person is chargeable. There may be a settlement by parentage, for legitimate children take the settlement of their father, or if he has no settlement they arc' entitled to the settlement of their mother; and it is only when both these sources fail discovery that their right of settlement by birth accrues; for until the settlement of the father or mother has been ascertained the settlement of a legitimate child, like that of a bastard, is in the place where the birth took place. A settlement attaches to those persons who have a settlement of some kind. Foreigners born out of the country and not acquiring any in one of the modes pointed out must be provided for, if requiring relief, where they happen to be. As the burden of maintaining the poor is thrown on the parish of settlement, when the necessity for immediate relief arises in another parish, the important question arises whether the pauper can be removed ; for, although the parish where the pauper happens to be must afford immediate relief without waiting for removal, the parish of settlement cannot in general be charged with the cost unless the pauper is capable of being removed. The question of removability is distinct from settlement. A pauper often acquires a status or irremovability without gaining a settlement. _ Irremovability is a principle of great public importance quite irrespective of the incident of cost as between one parish or another. Before the introduction of a status of irremovability removal might take place (subject to powers of suspension in case of sickness and otherwise) after any interval during which no legal settlement was obtained; mere length of residence without concurrent cir- cumstances involving the acquisition of a settlement on obtaining relief gave no right to a person to remain in the parish where he resided. In 1846 it was enacted that no person should be removed nor any warrant granted for the removal of any person from any parish in which such persons had resided for five years (9 & lo Viet. c. 66). In 1861 three years was submitted for five (24 & 25 Viet. c. 55); mil only four years later one year was substituted for three (28 & -'i Viet. c. 79). Apart from these reductions of time in giving the status of irremovability, actual removals to the parish of settle- ment were narrowed by provisions giving to residence in any part of a union the same effect as a residence in any parish of that union (24 & 25 Viet. c. 55). On the other hand the time during which parish relief is received, or during which the person is in any poorhouse or hospital or in a prison, is excluded from the computa- tion of time (9 & 10 Viet. c. 66). The removability as well as the settlement of the family, i.e. of the wife and unemancipated children, are practically subject to one and the same general rule. Wherever any person has a wife or children having another settlement, they are removable where he is removable, and are not removable from any parish or place from which he is not removable (n & 12 Viet. c. 211). It is to be borne in mind that no person exempted from liability to be removed acquires, by reason of such exemption, any settle- ment in any parish ; but a residence for three years gives a qualified settlement (39 & 40 Viet. C. 6l). The cost of relief of paupers rendered irremovable is borne by the common fund of the union (I i & 12 Viet. c. 1 10, § 3) as union expenses (§ 6), and any question arising in the union with reference to the charging relief may be referred to and decided by the local govern- ment board (§ 4). The poor rate is the fund from which the cost of relief is princi- pally derived. The statute of Elizabeth (extended in some respects as to places by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12) embraced poorgmte two classes of persons subject to taxation — occupiers of real property and inhabitants in respect of personal property, although the rateability under the latter head was reluctantly conceded by the courts of law, and was in practice only partially acted upon. As regards occupiers of land and houses, the correct principles as to the persons liable to be rated were, after many erroneous views and decisions, established by the House of Lords in 1865 in the case of the Mersey docks. The only occupier exempt from the operation of the act of Elizabeth is the Crown, on the general prin- ciple that such liabilities are not imposed on the sovereign unless expressly mentioned, and that principle applies to the direct and immediate servants of the Crown, whose occupation is the occupa- tion of the Crown itself. If there is a personal private beneficial occupation, so that the occupation is by the subject, that occupa- tion is rateable. Thus for apartments in a royal palace, gratui- tously assigned to a subject, who occupies them by permission of the sovereign but for the subject's benefit, the latter is rateable; on the other hand, where a lease of private property is taken in the name of a subject, but the occupation is by the sovereign or his subjects on his behalf, no rate can be imposed. So far the ground of exemption is perfectly intelligible, but it has been carried a good deal further, and applied to many cases in which it can scarcely be said naturally, but only theoretically, that the sovereign or the servants of the sovereign are in occupation. A long series of cases have established that when property is occu- pied for the purposes of the government of the country, including under that head the police, and the administration of justice, no one is rateable in respect of such occupation. And this applies not only to property occupied for such purposes by the servants of the great departments of state and the post office, the Horse Guards, and the Admiralty, in all which cases the occupiers might strictly be called the servants of the Crown, but to county buildings occupied for the assizes and for the judge's lodgings, to stations for the local constabulary, to jails and to county courts where undertakings are carried out by or for the government and the government is in occupation; the same principles of exemption have been applied to property held by the office of works. When the property is not de facto occupied by the Crown or for the Crown, it is rateable ; and, although formerly the uses of property for public purposes, even where the Crown was not constructively interested in the way above pointed out, was treated as a ground for exemption, it is now settled that trustees who are in law the tenants and occupiers of valuable property in trust for public and even charitable purposes, such as hospitals or lunatic asylums, are in principle rateable notwithstanding that the buildings are actually occupied by paupers who are sick or insane, and that the notion that persons in the legal occupation of valuable property are not rateable if they occupy in a merely fiduciary character cannot be sustained. With respect to the particular person to be rated where there is a rateable occupation, it is to be observed that the tenant, as dis- tinguished from the landlord, is the person to be rated under the statute of Elizabeth ; but occupiers of tenements let for short terms may deduct the poor rate paid by them from their rents, or the vestries may order such owners to be rated instead of the occupiers ; such payments or deductions do not affect qualification and fran- chises depending on rating (Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869 and Amendment Act 1882). To be rated the occupation must be such as to be of value, and in this sense the word beneficial occupation has been used in many cases. But it is not necessary that the occupation should be bene- ficial to the occupier; for, if that were necessary, trustees occupying for various purposes, having no beneficial occupation, would not be liable, and their general liability has been established as indicated in the examples just given. As to the mode and amount of rating it is no exaggeration to say that the application of a landlord-and-tenant valuation in the terms already given in the Parochial Assessment Act, with the deductions there mentioned, has given rise to litigation on which millions of pounds have been spent with respect to the rating of railways alone, although the established principle applied to them, after much consideration, is to calculate the value of the land as increased by the line. The Parochial Assessment Act referred to (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 96), comprising various provisions as to the mode of assessing the rate so far as it authorized the making of a valuation, was repealed in 1869, in relation to the metropolis, and other provisions made for securing uniformity of the assessment of rateable property there (32 & 33 Viet. c. 67). The mode in which a rate is made and recovered may be concisely stated thus. The guardians appoint an assessment committee_of their body for the investigation and supervision of valuations, which are made out in the first instance by the overseers according to specific regulations and in a form showing among other headings the gross POOR LAW estimated rental of all property and the names of occupiers anc owners, and the rateable value after the deductions specified in the Assessment Act already mentioned, and as prescribed by the centra board. This valuation list, made and signed by the overseers, is published, and all persons assessed or liable to be assessed, and other interested parties, may, including the officers of other parishes inspect and take copies of and extracts from that list. A multitude of provisions exist in relation to the valuation and supplemental valuation lists. Objections on the ground of unfairness or incorrect- ness are dealt with by the committee, who hold meetings to hear and determine such objections. The valuation list, where approved by the committee, is delivered to the overseers, who proceed to make the rate in accordance with the valuation lists and in a prescribed form of rate book. The parish officers certify to the examination and comparison of the rate book with the assessments, and obtain the consent of justices as required by the statute of Elizabeth. This consent or allowance of the rate is merely a ministerial act, and if the rate is good on the face of it the justices cannot inquire into its validity. The rate is then published and open to inspection. Appeals may be made to special or quarter sessions against the rate, subject to the restriction that, if the objection were such that it might have been dealt with on the valuation lists, no appeal to sessions is permitted unless the valuation list has been duly objected to and the objector had failed to obtain such relief in the matter as he deemed to be just. In the metropolis a common basis of value for the purposes of government and local taxation is provided, including the promotion of uniformity in the assessment of rateable property. Provision is made for the appointment of an assessment committee by guardians or vestries, and for the preparation of valuation lists, and the deposit and distribution of valuation lists, and for the periodical revision of valuation lists. Many endeavours have been made to readjust the burden of local expenditure. The system of making grants from the national taxes in aid of local rates has been extended. The principle of the metropolitan common poor fund, a device for giving metropolitan grants assessed on the whole of London in aid of the London local poor law authorities, has been followed, mutatis mutandis, in the relations between the national and the local exchequers. At the time of the repeal of the corn laws, Sir Robert Peel expressed an opinion that this fiscal change necessitated some readjustment of local rates. In that year, 1846, a beginning of grants from the national exchequer in aid of local expenditure was made. The salaries of poor-law teachers, medical officers and auditors were provided from the larger area of taxation, and in 1867 the salaries of public vaccinators were added to the list. In 1874 a grant of 45. per head per week was made for each pauper lunatic passed by the guardians to the care of a lunatic asylum. By the Local Government Act 1888, supplemented by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890, this principle was more widely extended. The various grants in aid were abolished, and in substitution the proceeds of certain specified taxes were set aside for local purposes. From this source, the gross amount of which of course varies, there are now distributed to local poor-law authori- ties some 43. a week for lunatics in asylums, and allowances based on their average expenditure in previous years in salaries of officials and other specified charges. In London, in order not to conflict with the operation of the common poor fund, which had already spread these charges over a wide area, the grant takes the form of a sum equivalent to about 4d. per diem for each indoor pauper. The number on which this calculation is based is not, however, to be the actual number, but the average of the last five years previous to the passing of the act. By this legislation something like one- quarter of the total expenditure on poor law relief is obtained from national taxes as opposed to local rates. By the Agricultural Rates Act 1896 the occupier of agricultural land was excused one-half of certain rates, including the poor rate. The deficiency is supplied by a contribution from the national exchequer. Meanwhile, the spending authority continue to be elected by the local ratepayers. In this connexion two further anomalies deserve notice. By the Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869 owners who compound to pay the rates in respect of tenement property are entitled to certain deductions by way of commission. Such payments by the owner are constructively payments by the occupier, who thereby is to be deemed duly rated for any qualifi- cation or franchise. Under these arrangements a large number of electors do not contribute directly to the rate. A converse process is also going on, whereby the ownership of an important and increasing body of property is practically unrepresented. This is due to the great growth of property in the hands of railway companies, docks and limited liability companies generally. The railways alone are said to pay considerably over 13 % of the local taxation of the country, and they have no local representation. There is, in fact, in local administration a divorce between repre- sentation and taxation to a greater extent than is generally supposed, and it is impossible not to connect the fact with the rapid growth of local expenditure and indebtedness. Royal Commission of 1905-1909— The main points of the system of English poor relief, as still in force in 1910, are as outlined above. That it has been inadequate in dealing with the various problems of unemployment and pauperism, which the constantly changing conditions of the industrial world necessarily evolve had however been long acknowledged. Accordingly, in 1905 a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the working of the law relating to the relief of poor persons, and into the various means adopted outside of the poor laws for meeting distress arising from want of employment, particularly during the periods of severe industrial depression. The commis- sion took voluminous evidence * and its report was issued in 1 The appendix volumes to the Report of the Royal Commission number thirty-four. Their contents are as follows- vol. i. English Official Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of the officers of the Local Government Board for England and Wales; vol. ii. London Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of London witnesses ; vol. iii. Associations and Critics, minutes of evidence mainly of critics of the Poor Law and of witnesses representing Poor Law and Charitable Associations; vol. iv Urban Centres, minutes of evidence containing the oral and written evidence of the British Medical Association and of witnesses from the following provincial urban centres — Liverpool and Manchester districts, West Yorkshire, Midland Towns; vol. v. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from urban centres in the following districts — South Wales and North Eastern Counties; vol. vi. Minutes of Evidence relating to Scotland; vol. vii. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from various rural centres in the South Western, Western and Eastern Counties, from the parish of Poplar Borough and from the National Con- ference of Friendly Societies; vol. viii. Minutes of Evidence con- taining the oral and written evidence of witnesses relating chiefly to the subject of " unemployment "; vol. ix. Evidence of further witnesses on the subject of unemployment; vol. x. Minutes of Evidence relating to Ireland ; vol. xi. Miscellaneous Papers. Com- munications from Boards of Guardians and others, &c., vol. xii. Reports, Memoranda and Tables prepared by certain of the Commissioners; vol. xiii. Diocesan Reports on the Methods of administering charitable assistance and the extent and intensity of poverty in England and Wales; vol. xiv. Report on the Methods and Results of the present system of administering indoor and outdoor poor law medical relief in certain unions in England and Wales, by Dr J. C. McVail; vol. xv. Report on the Administrative Relation of Charity and the Poor Law, and the extent and the actual and potential utility of Endowed and Voluntary Charities in England and Scotland, by A. C. Kay and H. V. Toynbee; vol. xvi. Reports on the Relation of Industrial and Sanitary Conditions to Pauperism, by Steel Maitland and Miss R. E. Squire ; vol. xvii. Reports on the effect of Outdoor Relief on Wages and the Conditions of Employment, by Thomas Jones and Miss Williams; vol. xviii. Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain Unions in London and in the Provinces, by Dr Ethel Williams and Miss Longman and Miss Phillips; vol. xix. Reports on the Effects of Employment or Assistance given to the Unemployed since 1886 as a means of relieving distress outside the Poor Law in London, and generally throughout England and Wales, and in Scotland and Ireland, by Cyril Jackson and Rev. J. C. Pringle; vol. xx. Report on Boy Labour in London and certain other typical towns, by Cyril Jackson, with a Memorandum from the General Post Office on the Conditions of Employment of Telegraph Messengers; vol. xxi. Reports on the Effect of the Refusal of Out-Relief on the Applicants for such Relief, by Miss G. Harlock; vol. xxii. Report on the Overlapping of the work of the Voluntary General Hospitals with that of Poor Law Medical Relief in certain districts of London, by Miss M. B. Roberts; vol. xxiii. Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain parishes in Scotland, by Dr C. T. Parsons and Miss Longman and Miss Phillips; vol. xxiv. Report on a Comparison of the Physical Condition of " Ordinary " Paupers in certain Scottish Poorhouses with that of the Able-bodied Paupers in certain English Workhouses and Labour Yards, by Dr C. T. Parsons; vol. xxv. Statistical Memoranda and Tables relating to England and Wales, prepared t>y the Staff of the Commission and by Government Departments and others, and Actuarial Reports; vol. xxvi. Documents relating more especially to the administration of charities; vol. xxvii. Replies by Distress Committees in England and Wales to Questions circulated on the subject of the Unemployed Workmen Act 1905; vol. xxviii. Reports of Visits to Poor Law and Charitable Institutions and to Meetings of Local Authorities in the United Kingdom; vol. xxix. Report on the Methods of Administering Charitable Assistance and the extent and intensity of Poverty in Scotland, prepared by the Committee on Church Interests appointed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; vol. xxx. Documents relating especially to Scotland; vol. xxxi. Statistical Memoranda and Tables relating to Ireland, &c.; vol. xxxii. Report on Visits laid by the Foreign Labour Colonies Committee of the Commis- iion to certain Institutions in Holland, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland; vol. xxxiii. Foreign and Colonial Systems of Poor POOR LAW 79 1909. It consists of a majority report, signed by the chairman and 13 other members, and a minority report signed by 4 dis- sentient members. To this report and its appendices those who wish to obtain an exhaustive account of the working ol tlu- English poor law must necessarily have recourse. The " majority " report opens with a statistical survey ol poor law problems, gives an historical sketch of the poor laws Majority down to 1834, and proceeds to deal in detail with Report. the historical development and present condition of the various branches of the poor law under their appro- priate headings: (a) the central authority; (b) the local authority; (c) the officers of the local authority; (d) areas of administration; (e) indoor relief; (/) outdoor relief; (g) the aged; (h) the children; (i) the able-bodied under the poor law and (j) the causes of pauperism. Other portions of the report deal with medical relief, distress due to unemployment, and charities and the relief of distress. In reviewing these various subjects the commission lay bare the main defects of the present system, which they briefly summarize as follows: — i. The inadequacy of existing poor law areas to meet the growing needs of administration. ii. The excessive size of many boards of guardians, iii. The absence of any general interest in poor law work and poor law elections, due in great part to the fact that poor law stands in no organic relation to the rest of local govern- ment. iv. The lack of intelligent uniformity in the application of principles and in general administration. v. The want of proper investigation and discrimination in dealing with applicants. vi. The tendency in many boards of guardians to give out- door relief without plan or purpose. vii. The unsuitability of the general workhouse as a test or deterrent for the able-bodied; the aggregation in it of all classes without sufficient classification; and the absence of any system of friendly and restorative help. viii. The lack of co-operation between poor law and charity, ix. The tendency of candidates to make lavish promises of out-relief and of guardians to favour their constituents in its distribution. x. General failure to attract capable social workers and leading citizens. xi. The general rise in expenditure, not always accompanied by an increase of efficiency in administration. xii. The want of sufficient control and continuity of policy on the part of the central authority. The commission stated that these defects have produced a want of confidence in the local administration of the poor law, and that they have been mainly the cause of the introduction of other forms of relief from public funds which are unaccom- panied by such conditions as are imperatively necessary as safeguards. The commission proceed to formulate a scheme of reform, the main features of which are summarized below: — Public Assistance.— --The commissioners state that the name " poor law " has gathered about it associations of harshness, and still more of hopelessness, which might seriously obstruct the reforms they recommend, and they suggest that the title " public assistance " better expresses the system of help outlined in their report. They propose the abolition of the existing boards of guardians, the separation of their duties into two categories, and the calling into existence of two bodies for the discharge of the two sets of functions, viz. a local authority, known as the public assistance authority, with an area conterminous with the area of the county or county borough, for central administration and control; and local committees in existing union area.- for dealing with applications, investigating and supervising cases and under- taking such other duties as may be delegated by the public assistance authority. They recommend that the public assistance authority should be a statutory committee of the County Council, with one-half of its members appointed by the council from persons who are members of the council, and the other half of its members appointed by the council from outside their number, and to consist of persons experienced in the local administration of public assistance or Relief, with a memorandum on the Relief of Famines in India; vol. xxxiv. Alphabetical Lists of Oral and Non-oral Witnesses. other cognate work, women to be eligible for appointment in either case. Working in co-operation with the public assistance authorities are to be voluntary aid councils and committees (the former super- vising, the latter executive) for aiding persons in distress whose cases do not appear to be suitable for treatment by the public assistance committee. The commission epitomize what they consider to be the main principles of a reformed poor law. They are (i) that the treatment of the poor who apply for public assistance should be adapted to the needs of the individual, and\ if institutional, should be governed by classification; (2) that the public adminis- tration established for the assistance of the poor should work in co-operation with the local and private charities of the district; (3) that the system of public assistance thus established should include processes of help which would be preventive, curative, and restorative, and (4) that every effort should be made to foster the instincts of independence and self-maintenance amongst those assisted. They proceed to recommend : — Indoor or " Institutional " Relief. — That general workhouses should be abolished. That indoor relief should DC given in separate institutions appropriate to the following classes of applicants, viz. (a) children, (b) aged and infirm, (c) sick, (d) able-bodied men, (e\ able-bodied women, (/) vagrants, and (g) feeble-minded and epileptics. Powers of removal to and detention in institutions should be given, with proper safeguards, to the public assistance authority. The treatment of inmates should be made as far as possible curative and restorative. Outdoor Relief or " Home Assistance." — This should be given only after thorough inquiry, except in cases of sudden and urgent necessity; it should be adequate to meet the needs of those to whom it is given; persons so assisted should be subject to supervision; that such supervision should include in its purview the conditions, moral and sanitary, under which the recipient is living; that voluntary agencies should be utilized as far as possible for the personal care of individual cases, and that there should be one uniform order governing outdoor relief or home assistance. Children. — Effective steps should be taken to secure that the maintenance of children in the workhouse be no longer recognized as a legitimate way of dealing with them. Boarding-out might and should be greatly extended. Power to adopt children of vicious parents should be more frequently exercised and accom- panied by a strict dealing with the parent, and the public assistance authorities should retain supervision of adopted children up to the age of twenty-one. A jocal government board circular of June 1910 to boards of guardians embodied many of the recommenda- tions of the commission. Some recommendations, of course, the guardians are not empowered, under existing legislation, to carry out. The Aged. — As regards institutional relief, the aged should have accommodation and treatment apart from the able-bodied, and be housed on a separate site, and be further subdivided into classes as far as practicable with reference to their physical condition and their moral character. As regards outdoor relief, greater care should be taken to ensure adequacy of relief. Medical Relief or Assistance. — A general system of provident dispensaries should be established, of which existing voluntary outdoor medical organizations should be invited to form an integral part, and every inducement should be offered to the working classes below a certain wage to become, or continue to be, members of a provident dispensary. Unemployment. — The commission review the social and industrial developments since 1834, deal with the new problems, criticize the existing methods of relief, and on their summing up of the new Factors and developments, arrive at the conclusions: (a) that there is an increasing aggregation of unskilled labour at the great ports ind in certain populous districts; (b) that this aggregation of low-grade labour is so much in excess of the normal local wants as to promote and perpetuate under-employment, and (c) that this normal condition of under-employment, when aggravated by periodic contraction of trade or by inevitable changes in methods of pro- duction, assumes such dimensions as to require special machinery and organization for its relief and treatment. The commission Droceed to make the following recommendations: — Labour Exchanges. — A national system of labour exchanges should be established and worked by the board of trade for the jeneral purpose of assisting the mobility of labour and of collecting iccurate information as to unemployment. (These were established :>y the Labour Exchanges Act 1909; see UNEMPLOYMENT.) Education and Training of the Young for Industrial Life. — The ;ducation in the public elementary schools should be much less iterary and more practical, and better calculated than at present to adapt the child to its future occupation. Boys should be kept at school until the age of fifteen; exemption below fifteen should be granted only for boys leaving to learn a skilled trade, and there should be school supervision till sixteen and replacing in school if not jroperly employed. Regularization of Employment. — Government departments and ocal and public authorities should be enjoined to regularize their work as far as possible, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to undertake their irregular work when the general demand for labour is slack. 8o POPAYAN Unemployment Insurance. — The establishment and promotion of unemployment insurance, especially amongst unskilled and unorganized labour, is of paramount importance in averting distress arising from unemployment, and is of such national im- portance as to justify, under specified conditions, contributions from public funds towards its furtherance. The commission further state that this insurance can best be promoted by utilizing the agency of existing trade organizations, or of organizations of1 a similar character. They are of opinion that no scheme of unemployment insurance, either foreign or British, which has been brought before them, is so free from objections as to justify them in recommending it for general adoption. Labour Colonies. — The commission recommend their establish- ment and use. (For .these see VAGRANCY.) Four out of the seventeen members of the commission, being unable to agree with their colleagues, issued a separate report, which is very nearly as voluminous as that of the Report* majority. Their recommendations were more drastic than those of the majority, and had for their aim not a reform of the poor law as it exists, but its entire break- up. The minority agree with the majority in recommending the abolition of workhouses, but instead of setting up new authorities, they consider that the duties of the guardians should be transferred to the county authorities, with an appropriate distribution among four existing committees of the county council. They recommend that the education committee become responsible for the entire care of children of school age. That the health committee should care for the sick and permanently incapacitated, infants under school age, and the aged requiring institutional care. The asylums committee should have charge of the mentally defective and the pension committee of the aged to whom pensions are awarded. The minority consider there should be some systematic co- ordination, within each local area, of all forms of public assis- tance and, if possible, of all assistance dispensed by voluntary agencies, and they recommend the appointment, by the county or county borough council, of one or more responsible officers, called " registrars of public assistance." Their duties would be to keep a register of all persons receiving any form of public assistance within their districts; they would assess the charge to be made on individuals liable to pay any part of the cost of the service rendered to them or their dependants, and re- cover the amount thus due. They would also have to consider the proposals of the various committees of the council for the payment of out-relief, or, as the minority prefer to term it, " home aliment." Other various duties are allotted to them in the report. The subject of unemployment was considered by the minority and they made the following recommendations: — Ministry of Labour. — The duty of organizing the national labour market should be placed upon a minister responsible to parliament. The ministry of labour should have six distinct and separately organized divisions; viz. the national labour exchange; the trade insurance division; the maintenance and training division; the industrial regulation division; the emigration and immigration division, and the statistical division. National Labour Exchange. — The function of the national labour exchange should be, not only, (a) to ascertain and report the surplus or shortage of labour of particular kinds, at particular places; and (6) to diminish the time and energy now spent in looking for work, and the consequent leaking between jobs; but also (c) so to dovetail casual and seasonal employments as to arrange for practical con- tinuity of work for those now chronically unemployed. Absorption of Surplus Labour. — To reduce the surplus of labour the minority recommend (a) that no child should be employed, in any occupation whatsoever, below the age of fifteen; no young person under eighteen tor more than thirty hours per week, and all so employed should be required to attend some suitable public institution for not less than thirty hours per week for physical training and technical education; (6) the hours of labour of railway, omnibus and tramway employees should be reduced to a maximum of sixty, if not of forty-eight in any one week; and (c) wage-earning mothers of young children should be withdrawn from the industrial world by giving them sufficient public assistance for the support of their families. Regularization of the National Demand for Labour. — In order to meet the periodically recurrent general depressions of trade the government should take advantage of there being at these periods as much unemployment of capital as there is unemployment of labour; that it should definitely undertake, as far as practicable, the regularization of the national demand for labour; and that it should, for this purpose, and to the extent of at least £4,000,000 a year, arrange a portion of the ordinary work required by each department on a ten years' programme; £4.0,000,000 worth of work for the decade being then put in hand, not by equal annual instal- ments, but exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; being paid for out of loans for short terms raised as they are required, and being executed with the best available labour, at standard rates, engaged in the ordinary way. That in this ten years' programme there should be included works of afforestation, coast protection and land reclamation; to be carried out by the board of agriculture exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; by the most suitable labour obtainable, taken on in the ordinary way at the rates locally current for the work, and paid for out of loans raised as required. Trade Union Insurance. — In view of its probable adverse effect on trade union membership and organization the minority com- missioners cannot recommend the establishment of any plan of government or compulsory insurance against unemployment. They recommend, however, a government subvention not exceeding one half of the sum actually paid in the last preceding year as out- of-work benefit should be offered to trade unions or other societies providing such benefit. Maintenance and Training. — For the ultimate residuum of men in distress from want of employment the minority recommend that maintenance should be freely provided, without disfranchise- ment, on condition that they submit themselves to the physical and mental training that they may prove to require. Suitable day training depots or residential farm colonies should be estab- lished, where the men's whole working time would be absorbed in such varied beneficial training of body and mind as they proved capable of; their wives and families being, meanwhile, provided with adequate home aliment. AUTHORITIES. — The Report and Evidence of the Royal Com- mission of 1905—1909 is a library in itself on the subject of pauperism. The contents of the various volumes are given supra. Other im- portant publications are Report and Evidence of Royal Commission on Aged Poor (1895) ; Report and Evidence of Select Committee of House of Commons on Distress from Want of Employment (1895); Report of Departmental Committee on Vag'ancy (1906). See also the references in the bibliography to CHARITY AND CHARITIES; and Sir G. Nicholls and T. Mackay, A History of the English Poor Law (3 vols., 1899) ; the publications of the Charity Organization Society ; Reports of Poor Law Conferences. For list of subjects discussed, see index to Report of Central Conferences. POPAYAN, a city of Colombia, capital of the department of Cauca, about 240 m. S.W. of Bogota, on the old trade route between that city and Quito, in 2° 26' N., 76° 49' W. Pop. (1870), 8485; (1906, estimate), 10,000. Popayan is built on a great plain sloping N.W. from the foot of the volcano Purace, near the source of the Cauca and on one of its small tribu- taries, 5712 ft. above the sea. Its situation is singularly pic- turesque, the Purace rising to an elevation of 15,420 ft. about 20 m. south-east of the city, the Sotara volcano to approxi- mately the same height about the same distance south by east, and behind these at a greater distance the Pan de Azucar, 15,978 ft. high. The ridge forming the water-parting between the basins of the Cauca and Patia rivers crosses between the Central and Western Cordilleras at this point and culminates a few miles to the south. Popayan is the seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, whose cathedral was built by the Jesuits; and in the days of its prosperity it possessed a university of considerable reputation. It has several old churches, a college, two seminaries founded about 1870 by the French Lazarists, who have restored and occupy the old Jesuit convent, and a mint established in 1749. The city was at one time an important commercial and mining centre, but much of its importance was lost through the transfer of trade to Cali and Pasto, through the decay of neighbouring mining industries, and through political disturbances. Earth- quakes have also caused much damage to Popayan, especially those of 1827 and 1834. The modern city has some small manufacturing industries, including woollen fabrics for cloth- ing, but its trade is much restricted, and its importance is political rather than commercial. Popayan was founded by Sebastian Benalcazar in 1 538 on the site of an Indian settlement, whose chief, Payan, had the un- usual honour of having his name given to the usurping town. In 1558 it received a coat of arms and the title of " Muy noble y muy leal " from the king of Spain — a distinction of great POPE 81 Various significance in that disturbed period of colonial history. It is noted also as the birthplace of Caldas, the Colombian naturalist, and of Mosquera, the geographer. There are hot sulphurous springs near by on the flanks of the volcano Purace, especially at Coconuco, which are much frequented by Colombians. POPE (Or. irdiriraj, post-classical Lat. papa, father), an ecclesiastical title now used exclusively to designate the head of the Roman Catholic Church. In the 4th and 5th 1 centuries it was frequently used in the West of any bishop (Du Cange, s.v.); but it gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of Rome, becoming his official title. In the East, on the other hand, only the bishop of Alexandria seems to have used it as a title; but as a popular term it was applied to priests, and at the present day, in the Greek Church and in Russia, all the priests are called pappas, which is also translated " pope." Even in the case of the sovereign pontiff the word pope is officially only used as a less solemn style: though the ordinary signature and heading of briefs is, e.g. " Pius P.P.X.," the signature of bulls is " Pius episcopus ecclesiae catholicae," and the heading, " Pius epi- scopus, servus servorum Dei," this latter formula going back to the time of St Gregory the Great. Other styles met with in official documents are Pontifex, Summus pontifex, Romanus pontifex, Sanctissimus, Sanctissimus pater, Sanctissimus domi- nus noster, Sanctitas sua, Beatissimus pater, Beatitudo sua; while the pope is addressed in speaking as " Sanctitas vestra," or " Beatissime pater." In the middle ages is also found " Dominus apostolicus " (cf. still, in the litanies of the saints), or simply " Apostolicus." The pope is pre-eminently, as successor of St Peter, bishop of Rome. Writers are fond of viewing him as representing all the degrees of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; they say that he is bishop of Rome, metropolitan of the °f,Jt"rls' Roman province, primate of Italy, patriarch of the western Church and head of the universal Church. This is strictly correct, but, with the exception of the first and last, these titles are seldom to be found in documents. And if these terms were intended to indicate so many degrees in the exercise of jurisdiction they would not be correct. As a matter of fact, from the earliest centuries (cf. can. 6 of Nicaea, in 325), we see that the popes exercised a special metropolitan juris- diction not only over the bishops nearest to Rome, the future cardinal bishops, but also over all those of central and southern Italy, including Sicily (cf. Duchesne, Origines du culte, ch. i), all of whom received their ordination at his hands. Northern Italy and the rest of the western Church, still more the eastern Church, did not depend upon him so closely for their administra- tion. His influence was exercised, however, not only in dogmatic questions but in matters of discipline, by means of appeals, petitions and consultations, not to mention spon- taneous intervention. This state of affairs was defined and developed in the course of centuries, till it produced the present state of centralization, according to a law which can equally be observed in other societies. In practice the different degrees of jurisdiction, as represented in the pope, are of no importance: he is bishop of Rome and governs his diocese by direct episcopal authority; he is also the head of the Church, and in this capacity governs all the dioceses, though the regular authority of each bishop in his own diocese is also ordinary and immediate, i.e. he is not a mere vicar of the pope. But the mode of exercise of a power and its intensity are subject to variation, while the power remains essentially the same. This is the case with the power of the pope Primacy. j i . and his primacy, the exercise and manifestation of which have been continually developing. This primacy, a primacy of honour and jurisdiction, involving the plenitude of power over the teaching, the worship, the discipline and administration of the Church, is received by the pope as part of the succession of St Peter, together with the episcopate of Rome. The whole episcopal body, with the pope at its head, should be considered as succeeding to the apostolic college, presided over by St Peter; and the head of it, now as then, as personally invested with all the powers enjoyed by the whole body, including the head. Hence the pope, as supreme in mat- ters of doctrine, possesses the same authority and the same in- fallibility as the whole Church; as legislator and judge he pos- sesses the same power as the episcopal body gathered around and with him in oecumenical council. Such are the two essential prerogatives of the papal primacy: infallibility in his supreme pronouncements in matters of doctrine (see INFALLIBILITY); and immediate and sovereign jurisdiction, under all its aspects, over all the pastors and the faithful. These two privileges, having been claimed and enjoyed by the popes in the course of centuries, were solemnly denned at the Vatican Council by the constitution " Pastor aeternus " of the i8th of July 1870. The two principal passages in it are the following, (i) In the matter of jurisdiction: " If any one say that the Roman Pontiff has an office merely of inspection and direction, and not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church, not only in matters of faith and morals, but also as regards discipline and the government of the Church scattered through- out the whole world; or that he has only the principal portion and not the plenitude of that supreme power; or that his power is not ordinary and immediate, as much over each and every church as over each and every pastor and believer: anathema sit." (2) In the matter of infallibility: " We decree that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is to say, when, in his capacity as Pastor and Doctor of all Christians he defines, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, a certain doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he enjoys, by the divine assistance promised to him in the Blessed Peter, that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer has thought good to endow His Church in order to define its doctrine in matters of faith and morals; consequently, these definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in themselves and not in consequence of the consent of the Church." For the history of the papacy, and associated questions, see PAPACY, CONCLAVE, CURIA ROMANA, CARDINAL, &c. The ordinary costume of the pope is similar to that of the other clergy and bishops, but white in colour; his shoes alone are different, being low open shoes, red in colour, with a cross embroidered on the front; these are what are called the " mules," a substitute for the compagi of ancient times, formerly reserved to the pope and his clergy (cf. Duchesne, op. cit. ch. n, 6). Over this costume the pope wears, on less solemn occasions, the lace rochet and the red mozetta, bordered with ermine, or the camauro, similar to the mozetta, but with the addition of a hood, and over all the stole embroidered with his arms. The pope's liturgical costume consists, in the first place, of all the elements comprising that of the bishops: stockings and sandals, amice, alb, cincture, tunicle and dalmatic, stole, ring, gloves, chasuble or cope, the latter, however, with a morse ornamented with precious stones, and for head-dress the mitre (see VESTMENTS). The tiara (ecame warmly attached to him, is dated the 8th of December 1713. Swift had been a leading member of the Brothers' Dlub, from which the famous Scriblerus Club seems to have >een an offshoot. The leading members of this informal 84 POPE, ALEXANDER literary society were Swift, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Bishop Atterbury, Pope, Gay and Thomas Parnell. Their chief object was a general war against the dunces, waged with great spirit by Arbuthnot, Swift and Pope. The estrangement from Addison was completed in connexion with Pope's translation of Homer. This enterprise was definitely undertaken in 1713. The work was to be published by subscription, as Dryden's Virgil had been. Men of all parties subscribed, their unanimity being a striking proof of the position Pope had attained at the age of twenty-five. It was as if he had received a national commission as by general consent the first poet of his time. But the unanimity was broken by a discordant note. A member of the Addison clique, Tickell, attempted to run a rival version. Pope suspected Addison's instigation; Tickell had at least Addison's encourage- ment. Pope's famous character of Addison as " Atticus " in the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (ii. 193-215) was, however, in- spired by resentment at insults that existed chiefly in his own imagination, though Addison was certainly not among his warmest admirers. Pope afterwards claimed to have been magnanimous, but he spoiled his case by the petty inventions of his account of the quarrel. The translation of Homer was Pope's chief employment for twelve years. The new pieces in the miscellanies published in 1717, his "Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady," and his " Eloisa to Abelard," were probably written some years before their publication. His " Eloisa to Abelard " was based on an English translation by John Hughes of a French version of the Letters, which differed very considerably from the original Latin. The Iliad was delivered to the subscribers in instal- ments in 1715, 1717, 1718 and 1720. Pope's own defective scholarship made help necessary. William Broome and John Jortin supplied the bulk of the notes, and Thomas Parnell the preface. For the translation of the Odyssey he took Elijah Fenton and Broome as coadjutors, who between them trans- lated twelve out of the twenty-four books.1 It was completed in 1725. The profitableness of [the work was Pope's chief temptation to undertake it. His receipts for his earlier poems had totalled about £150, but he cleared more than £8000 by the two translations, after deducting all payments to coadjutors — a much larger sum than had ever been received by an English author before. The translation of Homer had established Pope's reputation with his contemporaries, and has endangered it ever since it was challenged. Opinions have varied on the purely literary merits of the poem, but with regard to it as a translation few have differed from Bentley's criticism, " A fine poem, Mr Pope, but you must not call it Homer." His collaboration with Broome (q.v.) and Fenton (q.v.) 2 involved him in a series of recriminations. Broome was weak enough to sign a note at the end of the work understating the extent of Fenton's assist- ance as well as his own, and ascribing the merit of their trans- lation, reduced to less than half its real proportions, to a regular revision and correction — mostly imaginary — at Pope's hands. These falsehoods were deemed necessary by Pope to protect himself against possible protests from the subscribers. In 1722 he edited the poems of Thomas Parnell, and in 1725 made a considerable sum by an unsatisfactory edition of Shake- speare, in which he had the assistance of Fenton and Gay. Pope, with his economical habits, was rendered independent by the pecuniary success of his Homer, and enabled to live near London. The estate at Binfield was sold, and he removed with his parents to Mawson's Buildings, Chiswick, in 1716, and in 1719 to Twickenham, to the house with which his name is associated. Here he practised elaborate landscape gardening on a small scale, and built his famous grotto, which was really a tunnel under the road connecting the garden with the lawn on the Thames. He was constantly visited at Twickenham by his intimates, Dr John Arbuthnot, John Gay, Bolingbroke 1 I, 4, 19 and 20 are by Fenton; 2, 6, 8, II, 12, 16, 18, 23, with notes to all the books, by Broome. 1 The correspondence with them is given in vol. viii. of Elwin and Courthope's edition. (after his return in 1723), and Swift (during his brief visits England in 1726 and 1727), and by many other friends of the Tory party. With Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, he was on terms of affectionate intimacy, but he blundered in his evidence when he was called as a witness on his behalf in 1723. In 1717 his father died, and he appears to have turned to the Blounts for sympathy in what was to him a very serious bereavement. He had early made the acquaintance of Martha and Teresa Blount, both of them intimately connected with his domestic history. Their home was at Mapledurham,. near Reading, but Pope probably first met them at the house of his neighbour, Mr Englefield of Whiteknights, who was their grandfather. He begun to correspond with Martha Blount in 1712, and after 1717 the letters are much more serious in tone. He quarrelled with Teresa, who had apparently injured or prevented his suit to her sister; and although, after her father's death in 1718, he paid her an annuity, he seems to have regarded her as one of his most dangerous enemies. His friendship with Martha lasted all his life. So long as his mother lived he was unwearying in his attendance on her, but after her death in 1733 his association with Martha Blount was more constant. In defiance of the scandal-mongers, they paid visits together at the houses of common friends, and at Twickenham she spent part of each day with him. His earlier attachment to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was apparently a more or less literary passion, which perished under Lady Mary's ridicule. The year 1725 may be taken as' the beginning of the third period of Pope's career, when he made his fame as a moralist and a satirist. It may be doubted whether Pope had the stay- ing power necessary for the composition of a great imaginative work, whether his crazy constitution would have held together through the strain. He toyed with the idea of writing a grand epic. He told Spence that he had it all in his head, and gave him a vague (and it must be admitted not very promising) sketch of the subject and plan of it. But he never put any of it on paper. He shrank as with instinctive repulsion from the stress and strain of complicated designs. Even his prolonged task of translating weighed heavily on his spirits, and this was a much less formidable effort than creating an epic. He turned rather to designs that could be accomplished in detail, works of which the parts could be separately laboured at and put together with patient care, into which happy thoughts could be fitted that had been struck out at odd moments and in ordinary levels of feeling. Edward Young's satire, The Universal Passion, had just appeared, and been received with more enthusiasm than any thing published since Pope's own early successes. This alone would have been powerful inducement to Pope's emulous tem- per. Swift was finishing Gulliver's Travels, and came over to England in 1726. The survivors of the Scriblerus Club — Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, and Gay — resumed their old amusement of parodying and otherwise ridiculing bad writers, especially bad writers in the Whig interest. Two volumes of their Mis- cellanies in Prose and Verse were published in 1727. A third volume appeared in 1728, and a fourth was added in 1732. According to Pope's own history of the Dunciad, an Heroic Poem in Three Books, which first appeared on the 28th of May 1728, the idea of it grew out of'this. Among the Miscellanies was a " Treatise of the Bathos or the Art of Sinking in Poetry," in which poets were classified, with illustrations, according to their eminence in the various arts of debasing instead of elevating their subject. No names were mentioned, but the specimens of bathos were assigned to various letters of the alphabet, which, the authors boldly asserted, were taken at random. But no sooner was the treatise published than the scribblers proceeded to take the letters to themselves, and in revenge to fill the news- papers with the most abusive falsehoods and scurrilities they could devise. This gave Pope the opportunity he had hoped for, and provided him with an excuse for the personalities of the Dunciad, which had been in his mind as early as 1720. Among the most prominent objects of his satire were Lewis POPE, ALEXANDER Theobald, Colley Gibber, John Dennis, Richard Bentley, Aaron Hill and Bernard Lintot, who, in spite of his former relations with Pope, was now classed with the piratical Edmund Curll. The book was published with the greatest precautions. It was anonymous, and professed to be a reprint of a Dublin edition. When the success of the poem was assured, it was republished in 1729, and a copy was presented to the king by Sir Robert Walpole. Names took the place of initials, and a defence of the satire, written by Pope himself, but signed by his friend William Cleland, was printed as " A letter to the Publisher." Various indexes, notes and particulars of the attacks on Pope made by the different authors satirized were added. To avoid any danger of prosecution, the copyright was assigned to Lord Oxford, Lord Bathurst and Lord Burlington, whose position rendered them practically unassailable. We may admit that personal spite influenced Pope at least as much as disinte- >1 zeal for the honour of literature, but in the dispute as to the comparative strength of these motives, a third is apt to be overlooked that was probably stronger than either. This was an unscrupulous elfish love of fun, and delight in the creations of a humorous imagination. Certainly to represent the Dun- dad as the outcome of mere personal spite is to give an exag- gerated idea of the malignity of Pope's disposition, and an utterly wrong impression of the character of his satire. He was not, except in rare cases, a morose, savage, indignant satirist, but airy and graceful in his malice, revengeful perhaps and excessively sensitive, but restored to good humour as he thought over his wrongs by the ludicrous conceptions with which he invested his adversaries. The most unprovoked assault was on Richard Bentley, whom he satirized in the reconstruction and enlargement of the Dunciad made in the last years of his life at the instigation, it is said, of William Warburton. In the earlier editions the place of hero had been occupied by Lewis Theobald, who had ventured to criticize Pope's Shake- speare. In the edition which appeared in Pope's Works (1742), he was dethroned in favour of Colley Gibber, who had just written his Letter from Mr Gibber to Mr Pope inquiring into the motives that might induce him in his satyrical writings to be so frequently fond of Mr Gibber's name (1742). Warburton's name is attached to many new notes, and one of the preliminary dissertations by Ricardus Aristarchus on the hero of the poem seems to be by him. The four epistles of the Essay on Man (1733) were also intimately connected with passing controversies. They belong to the same intellectual movement with Butler's Analogy — the effort of the i8th century to put religion on a rational basis. But Pope was not a thinker like Butler. The subject was suggested to him by Henry St John, Lord Bolingbroke, who had returned from exile in 1723, and was a fellow-member of the Scriblerus Club. Bolingbroke is said — and the statement is supported by the contents of his posthumous works — to have furnished most of the arguments. Pope's contribution to the controversy consisted in brilliant epigram and illustra- tion. In this didactic work, as in his Essay on Criticism, he put together on a sufficiently simple plan a series of happy sayings, separately elaborated, picking up the thoughts as he found them in miscellaneous reading and conversation, and trying only to fit them with perfect expression. His readers were too dazzled by the verse to be severely critical of the sense. Pope himself had not comprehended the drift of the arguments he had adopted from Bolingbroke, and was alarmed when he found that his poem was generally interpreted as an apology for the free-thinkers. Warburton is said to have qualified its doctrines as " rank atheism, " and asserted that it was put together from the " worst passages of the worst authors." The essay was soon translated into the chief European languages, and in 1737 its orthodoxy was assailed by a Swiss professor, Jean Pierre de Crousaz. in an Examen de I'essay de M. Pope sur ritomme. Warburton now saw fit to revise his opinion of Pope's abilities and principles — for what reason does not appear. In any case he now became as enthusiastic in his praise of Pope's orthodoxy and his genius as he had before been scornful, and proceeded to employ his unrivalled powers of sophistry in a defence of the orthodoxy of the conflicting and inconsequent positions adopted in the Essay on Man. Pope was wise enough to accept with all gratitude an ally who was so useful a friend and so dangerous an enemy, and from that time onward Warburton was the authorized commentator of his works. The Essay on Man was to have formed part of a series of philosophic poems on a systematic plan. The other pieces were to treat of human reason, of the use of learning, wit, education and riches, of civil and ecclesiastical polity, of the character of women, &c. Of the ten epistles of the Moral Essays, the first four, written between 1731 and 1735, are connected with this scheme, which was never executed. There was much bitter, and sometimes unjust, satire in the Moral Essays and the Imitations of Horace. In these epistles and satires, which appeared at intervals, he was often the mouth- piece of his political friends, who were all of them in opposition to Walpole, then at the height of his power, and Pope chose the object of his attacks from among the minister's adherents. Epistle III., " Of the Use of Riches," addressed to Allen Bath- urst, Lord Bathurst, in 1732, is a direct attack on Walpole's methods of corruption, and on his financial policy in general; and the two dialogues (1738) known as the " Epilogue to the Satires," professedly a defence of satire, form an eloquent attack on the court. Pope was attached to the prince of Wales's party, and he did not forget to insinuate, what was indeed the truth, that the queen had refused the prince her pardon on her deathbed. The " Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot " contains a de- scription of his personal attitude towards the scribblers and is made to serve as a " prologue to the satires." The gross and unpardonable insults bestowed on Lord Hervey and on Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in the first satire " to Mr Fortescue " provoked angry retaliation from both. The description of Timon's ostentatious villa in Epistle IV., addressed to the earl of Burlington, was generally taken as a picture of Canons, the seat of John Brydges, duke of Chandos, one of Pope's patrons, and caused a great outcry, though in this case Pope seems to have been innocent of express allusion. Epistle II., addressed to Martha Blount, contained the picture of Atossa, which was taken to be a portrait of Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlborough. One of the worst imputations on Pope's character was that he left this passage to be published when he had in effect received a bribe of £1000 from the duchess of Marl- borough for its suppression through the agency of Nathanael Hooke (d. 1763). As the passage eventually stood, it might be applied to Katherine, duchess of Buckingham, a natural daughter of James II. Pope may have altered it with the intention of diverting the satire from the original object. He was scrupulously honest in money matters, and always in- dependent in matters of patronage; but there is some evidence for this discreditable story beyond the gossip of Horace Wal- pole (Works, ed. P. Cunningham, i. cxliv.), though not suffi- cient to justify the acceptance it received by some of Pope's biographers. To appreciate fully the point of his allusions requires an intimate acquaintance with the political and social gossip of the time. But apart from their value as a brilliant strongly-coloured picture of the time Pope's satires have a permanent value as literature. It is justly remarked by Mark Pattison ' that " these Imitations are among the most original of his writings." The vigour and terseness of the diction is still unsurpassed in English verse. Pope had gained complete mastery over his medium, the heroic couplet, before he used it to express his hatred of the political and social evils which he satirized. The elaborate periphrases and superfluous orna- ments of his earlier manner, as exemplified in the Pastorals and the Homer, disappeared; he turned to the uses of verse the ordinary language of conversation, differing from everyday speech only in its exceptional brilliance and point. It is in these satires that his best work must be sought, and by them that his position among English poets must be fixed. It was 1 In his edition of the Satires and Epistles (1866). 86 POPE, ALEXANDER the Homer chiefly that Wordsworth and Coleridge had in their eye when they began the polemic against the " poetic diction " of the 1 8th century, and struck at Pope as the arch-corrupter. They were historically unjust to Pope, who did not originate this diction, but only furnished the most finished examples of it. At the beginning of the igth century Pope still had an ardent admirer in Byron, whose first satires are written in Pope's couplet. The much abused pseudo-poetic diction in substance consisted in an ambition to " rise above the vulgar style," to dress nature to advantage — a natural ambition when the arbiters of literature were people of fashion. If one com- pares Pope's " Messiah " or " Eloisa to Abelard," or an im- passioned passage from the Iliad, with the originals that he paraphrased, one gets a more vivid idea of the consistence of pseudo-poetic diction than could be furnished by pages of an- alysis. But Pope merely made masterly use of the established diction of his time, which he eventually forsook for a far more direct and vigorous style. A passage from the Guardian, in which Philips was commended as against him, runs: " It is a nice piece of art to raise a proverb above the vulgar style and still keep it easy and unaffected. Thus the old wish, ' God rest his soul,' is very finely turned: — • ' Then gentle Sidney liv'd, the shepherd's friend, Eternal blessings on his shade attend ! ' ' Pope would have despised so easy a metamorphosis as this at any period in his career, and the work of his coadjutors in the Odyssey may be distinguished by this comparative cheapness of material. Broome's description of the clothes-washing by Nausicaa and her maidens in the sixth book may be compared with the original as a luminous specimen. Pope's wit had won for him the friendship of many distin- guished men, and his small fortune enabled him to meet them on a footing of independence. He paid long visits at many great houses, especially at Stanton Harcourt, the home of his friend Lord Chancellor Harcourt; at Oakley, the seat of Lord Bathurst; and at Prior Park, Bath, where his host was Ralph Allen. With the last named he had a temporary disagree- ment owing to some slight shown to Martha Blount, but he was reconciled to him before his death. He died on the 3oth of May 1744, and he was buried in the parish church of Twickenham. He left the income from his property to Martha Blount till her death, after which it was to go to his half-sister Magdalen Rackett and her children. His unpublished MSS. were left at the discretion of Lord Boling- broke, and his copyrights to Warburton. If we are to judge Pope, whether as a man or as a poet, with human fairness, and not merely by comparison with standards of abstract perfection, there are two features of his times that must be kept steadily in view — the character of political strife in those days and the political relations of men of letters. As long as the succession to the Crown was doubtful, and political failure might mean loss of property, banishment or death, politicians, playing for higher stakes, played more fiercely and unscrupulously than in modern days, and there was no con- trolling force of public opinion to keep them within the bounds of common honesty. Hence the age of Queen Anne is pre- eminently an age of intrigue. The government was almost as unsettled as in the early days of personal monarchy, and there was this difference — that it was policy rather than force upon which men depended for keeping their position. Secondly, men of letters were admitted to the inner circles of intrigue as they had never been before and as they have never been since. A generation later Walpole defied them, and paid the rougher instruments that he considered sufficient for his purpose in solid coin of the realm; but Queen Anne's statesmen, whether from difference of tastes or difference of policy, paid their prin- cipal literary champions with social privileges and honourable public appointments. Hence men of letters were directly in- fected by the low political morality of the unsettled time. And the character of their poetry also suffered. The most promi- nent defects of the age — the lack of high and sustained imagination, the genteel liking for " nature to advantage dressed," the incessant striving after wit — were fostered, if not generated, by the social atmosphere. Pope's own ruling passion was the love of fame, and he had no scruples where this was concerned. His vanity and his childish love of intrigue are seen at their worst in his petty manoeuvres to secure the publication of his letters during his lifetime. These intricate proceedings were unravelled with great patience and ingenuity by Charles Wentworth Dilkc, when the false picture of his relations with his contemporaries which Pope had imposed on the public had been practically accepted for a century. Elizabeth Thomas, the mistress of Henry Cromwell, had sold Pope's early letters to Henry Cromwell to the bookseller Curll for ten guineas. These were published in Curll's Miscellanea in 1726 (dated 1727), and had considerable success. This surreptitious publication seems to have suggested to Pope the desirability of publishing his own correspondence, which he immediately began to collect from various friends on the plea of preventing a similar clandestine transaction. The publication by Wycherley's executors of a posthumous volume of the dramatist's prose and verse fur- nished Pope with an excuse for the appearance of his own correspondence with Wycherley, which was accompanied by a series of unnecessary deceptions. After manipulating his cor- respondence so as to place his own character in the best light, he deposited a copy in the library of Edward, second earl of Oxford, and then he had it printed. The sheets were offered to Curll by a person calling himself P.T., who professed a desire to injure Pope, but was no other than Pope himself. The copy was delivered to Curll in 1735 after long negotiations by an agent who called himself R. Smythe, with a few originals to vouch for their authenticity. P. T. had drawn up an adver- tisement stating that the book was to contain answers from various peers. Curll was summoned before the House of Lords for breach of privilege, but was acquitted, as the letters from peers were not in fact forthcoming. Difficulties then arose between Curll and P. T., and Pope induced a bookseller named Cooper to publish a Narrative of the Method by which Mr Pope's Private Letters were procured by Edmund Curll, Book- seller (1735). These preliminaries cleared the way for a show of indignation against piratical publishers and a " genuine " edition of the Letters of Mr Alexander Pope (1737, fol. and 4to). Unhappily for Pope's reputation, his friend Caryll, who died before the publication, had taken a copy of Pope's letters before returning them. This letter-book came to light in the middle of the igth century, and showed the freedom which Pope permitted himself in editing. The correspondence with Lord Oxford, preserved at Longleat, afforded further evidence of his tortuous dealings. The methods he employed to secure his correspondence with Swift were even more discreditable. The proceedings can only be explained as the measures of a desperate man whose maladies seem to have engendered a passion for trickery. They are related in detail by Elwin in the introduction to vol. i. of Pope's Works. A man who is said to have " played the politician about cabbages and turnips," and who " hardly drank tea without a stratagem," was not likely to be straightforward in a matter in which his ruling passion was concerned. Against Pope's petulance and " general love of secrecy and cunning " have to be set, in any fair judg- ment of his character, his exemplary conduct as a son, the affection with which he was regarded in his own circle of intimates, and many well-authenticated instances of genuine and continued kindliness to persons in distress. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Various collected editions of Pope's Works appeared during his lifetime, and in 1751 an edition in nine volumes was published by a syndicate of booksellers " with the commentaries of Mr Warburton." Warburton interpreted his editorial rights very liberally. By his notes he wilfully misrepresented the meaning of the allusions in the satires, and made them more agreeable to his friends and to the court, while he made opportunities for the gratifi- cation of his own spite against various individuals. Joseph Warton's edition in 1797 added to the mass of commentary without giving much new elucidation to the allusions of the text, which even Swift, with his exceptional facilities, had found obscure. In 1769-1807 an edition was issued which included Owen Ruffhead's Life of Alexander POPE, A.— POPE, SIR T. Pope (1769), inspired by Warburton. The notes of many com- nifiitators, with some letters and a memoir, were included in the v of Alexander Pope, edited by W. L. Bowles (10 vols., 1806). Hi- Poetical Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1856); by R. Carruthers (1858) for Bohn's Library; by A. W. Ward (Globe Edition, ••> '782). Warton had a sincere appreciation of Pope's work, but he began the reaction which culminated with the romantic writers of the beginning of the igth century, and set the fashion of an undue disparagement of Pope's genius as a poet with enduring effects on popular opinion. Thomas Campbell's criticism in his Specimens of the British Poets provoked a controversy to which William Hazlitt, Byron and W. L. Bowles contributed. For a discussion of Pope's position as one of the great men of letters in the i8th century who emancipated themselves from patronage, see A. Heljame, Le Public et les hommes de lettres en An^leterre au dix- huiticme sikcle (1881); a section of Isaac D'lsraeh's Quarrels of Authors is devoted to Pope's literary animosities; and most impor- tant contributions to many vexed questions in the biography of Pope, especially the publication of his letters, were made by C. W. Dilke in Notes and Queries and the Athenaeum. These articles were reprinted by his grandson, Sir Charles Dilke, in 1875, as The Papers of a Critic. (W. M.; M. BR.) POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835), Irish actor and painter, was born in Cork, and was educated to follow his father's profession of miniature painting. He continued to paint miniatures and exhibit them at the Royal Academy as late as 1821; but at an early date he took the stage, first appearing in London as Oroonoko in 1785 at Covent Garden. He remained at this theatre almost continuously for nearly twenty years, then at the Haymarket until his retirement, playing leading parts, chiefly tragic. He was particularly esteemed as Othello and Henry VIII. He died on the 22nd of March 1835. Pope was thrice married. His first wife, Elizabeth Pope (c. 1744- 1797), a favourite English actress of great versatility, was billed before her marriage as Miss Younge. His second wife, Maria Ann Pope (1775-1803), also a popular actress, was a member of an Irish family named Campion. His third wife, Clara Maria Pope (d. 1838), was the widow of the artist Francis Wheatley, and herself a skilful painter of figures and of flowers. POPE, JANE (1742-1818), English actress, daughter of a London theatrical wig-maker, who began playing in a Lilli- putian company for Garrick in 1756. From this she speedily developed into soubrette roles. She was Mrs Candour in The School for Scandal at its first presentation (1777), and thereafter she had many important parts confided to her. She was the life-long friend of Mrs Clive, and erected the monument at Twickenham to the latter's memory. She was not only an admirable actress, but a woman of blameless life, and was praised by all the literary critics of her day — unused to such a combination. She died on the 3oth of July 1818. POPE, JOHN (1822-1892), American soldier, was the son of Nathaniel Pope (1784-1850), U.S. judge for the district of Illinois, and was born at Louisville, Kentucky, on the i6th of March 1822. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842 and was assigned to the engineers. He served in the Mexican War, receiving the brevets of ist lieutenant and captain for his conduct at Monterey and Buena Vista. Sub- sequently he was engaged in engineering and exploring work, mainly in New Mexico, and in surveying the route for a Pacific railroad. He was commissioned captain in 1856. He was actively opposed to the Buchanan administration, and a speech which he made in connexion with the presidential campaign of 1860 caused him to be summoned before a court-martial. Early in the Civil War he was placed, as a brigadier-general U.S.V., in charge of the district of Missouri, which by vigorous campaigning against guerrilla bands and severe administration of the civil population he quickly reduced to order. In 1862, along with the gunboat flotilla (commanded by Commodore A. H. Foote) on the Mississippi, Pope obtained a great success by the capture of the defences of New Madrid and Island No. 10, with nearly 7000 prisoners. Pope subsequently joined Halleck, and hi command of the Army of the Mississippi took part in the siege of Corinth. He was now a major-general U.S.V. The repu- tation he had thus gained as an energetic leader quickly placed him in a high command, to which he proved to be quite unequal. The " Army of Virginia," as - his new forces were styled, had but a brief career. At the very outset of his Virginian campaign Pope, by a most ill-advised order, in which he con- trasted the performances of the Western troops with the failures of the troops in Virginia, forfeited the confidence of his officers and men. The feeling of the Army of the Potomac (which was ordered to his support) was equally hostile, and the short opera- tions culminated in the disastrous defeat of the second battle of Bull Run. Pope was still sanguine and ready for another trial of strength, but he was soon compelled to realize the impossibility of retrieving his position, and resigned the command. Bitter controversy arose over these events. Halleck, the general-in- chief, was by no means free from blame, but the public odium chiefly fell upon generals McClellan and Fitz-John Porter, against whom Pope, while admitting his own mistakes, made grave charges. Pope was not again employed in the Civil War, but in command of the Department of the North-West he showed his former skill and vigour in dealing with Indian risings. In 1865 he was made brevet major-general U.S.A. (having become brigadier-general on his appointment to the Army of Virginia), and he subsequently was in charge of various military districts and departments until his retirement in 1886. In 1882 he was promoted to the full rank of major-general U.S.A. General Pope died at Sandusky, Ohio, on the 23rd of September 1892. He was the author of various works and papers, including railway reports (Pacific Railroad Reports vol. iii.) and The Campaign of Virginia (Washington, 1865). POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559), founder of Trinity College, Oxford, was born at Deddington, near Banbury, Oxfordshire, probably in 1507, for he was about sixteen years old when his father, a yeoman farmer, died in 1523. He was educated at Banbury school and Eton College, and entered the court of chancery. He there found a friend and patron in the lord- chancellor Thomas Audley. As clerk of briefs in the star chamber, warden of the mint (1534-1536), clerk of the Crown in chancery (1537), and second officer and treasurer of the court for the settlement of the confiscated property of the smaller religious foundations, he obtained wealth and influence. In this last office he was superseded in 1541, but from 1547 to 1553 he was again employed as fourth officer. He himself won by grant or purchase a considerable share in the spoils, for nearly thirty manors, which came sooner or later into his possession, were originally church property. " He could have rode," said Aubrey, " in his owne lands from Cogges (by Witney) to Banbury, about 18 miles." In 1537 he was knighted. The religious changes made by Edward VI. were repugnant to him, but at the beginning of Mary's reign he became a member of the privy council. In 1556 he was sent to reside as guardian in Elizabeth's house. As early as 1555 he had begun to arrange for the endowment of a college at Oxford, for which he bought the site and buildings of Durham College, the Oxford house of the abbey of Durham, from Dr George Owen and William Martyn. He received a royal charter for the establishment and endowment of a college of the " Holy and Undivided Trinity " on the 8th of March 1556. The foundation provided for a president, twelve fellows and eight scholars, with a schoolhouse at Hooknorton. The number of scholars, was subsequently increased to twelve, the schoolhouse being given up. On the 28th of March the members of the college were put in possession of the site, and they were formally admitted on the 2gth of May 1556. Pope died at Clerkenwell on the 29th of January 1559, and was buried at St Stephen's, 88 POPE-JOAN— POPILIA, VIA Walbrook; but his remains were subsequently removed to Trinity College, where his widow erected a semi-Gothic alabaster monument to his memory. He was three times married, but left no children. Much of his property was left to charitable and religious foundations, and the bulk of his Oxfordshire estates passed to the family of his brother, John Pope of Wroxton, and his descendants, the viscounts Dillon and the earls of Guilford and barons North. The life, by H. E. D. Blakiston, in the Diet. Nat. Biog., corrects many errors in Thomas Walton's Life of Sir Thomas Pope (1772). Further notices by the same authority are in his Trinity College (1898), in the " College Histories " Series, and in the English Historical Review (April, 1896). POPE-JOAN, a round game of cards, named after a legendary female Pope of the gth century. An ordinary pack is used, from which the eight of diamonds has been removed, and a special round board in the form of eight compartments, named respec- tively Pope- Joan, Matrimony, Intrigue, Ace, King, Queen, Knave and Game (King, Queen and Knave are sometimes omitted). Each player — any number can play — contributes a stake, of which one counter is put into the divisions Ace, King, Queen, Knave and Game, two into Matrimony and Intrigue, and the rest into Pope- Joan. This is called " dressing the board." The cards are dealt round, with an extra hand for " stops," i.e. cards which stop, by their absence, the completion of a suit; thus the absence of the nine of spades stops the playing of the ten. The last card is turned up for trumps. Cards in excess may be dealt to " stops," or an agreed number may be left for the purpose, so that all players may have an equal number of cards. If an honour or " Pope " (nine of diamonds) is turned up, the dealer takes the counters in the compartment so marked. Sometimes the turning-up of Pope settles the hand, the dealer taking the whole pool. The Ace is the lowest card, the King the highest. The player on the dealer's left plays a card and names it; the player who has the next highest then plays it, till a stop is played, i.e. a card of which no one holds the next highest. All Kings are of course stops, also the seven of diamonds; also the cards next below the dealt stops, and the cards next below the played cards. After a stop the played cards are turned over, and the player of the stop (the card last played) leads again. The player who gets rid of all his cards first takes the counters in " Game," and receives a counter from each player for every card left in his hand, except from the player who may hold Pope but has not played it. The player of Ace, King, Queen or Knave of trumps takes the counters from that compartment. If King and Queen of trumps are in one hand, the holder takes the counters in " Matrimony "; if a Queen and Knave, those in " Intrigue "; if all three, those in the two compartments; if they are in different hands these counters are sometimes divided. Unclaimed stakes are left for the next pool. Pope is sometimes considered a universal " stop." POPERINGHE, an ancient town of West Flanders, 12 m. W. of Ypres. Pop. (1904), 11,680. It contains a fine church of the nth century, dedicated to St Betin. In the i4th century it promised to become one of the principal communes in Flanders; but having incurred the resentment of Ypres on a matter of trade rivalry it was attacked and captured by the citizens of that place, who reduced it to a very subordinate position. There are extensive hop gardens, bleaching grounds and tanneries in the neighbourhood of the town. POPHAM, SIR HOME RIGGS (1762-1820), British admiral, was the son of Stephen Popham, consul at Tetuan, and was his mother's twenty-first child. He entered the navy in 1778, and served with the flag of Rodney till the end of the war. In 1783 he was promoted lieutenant, and was for a time engaged on survey service on the coast of Africa. Between 1787 and 1793 he was engaged in a curious series of adventures of a commercial nature in the Eastern Sea — sailing first for the Imperial Ostend Company, and then in a vessel which he purchased and in part loaded himself. During this time he took several surveys and rendered some services to the East India Company, which were officially acknowledged; but in 1793 his ship was seized, partly on the ground that he was carrying contraband and partly because he was infringing the East India Company's monopoly. His loss was put at £70,000, and he was entangled in litigation. In 1805 he obtained compensation to the amount of £25,000. The case was a hard one, for he was undoubtedly sailing with the knowledge of officials in India. While this dispute was going on Popham had resumed his career as a naval officer. He served with the army under the duke of York in Flanders as " superintendent of Inland Navigation " and won his confidence. The protection of the duke was exercised with so much effect that Popham was promoted commander in 1794 and post captain in 1795. He was now engaged for years in co-operating in a naval capacity with the troops of Great Britain and her allies. In the Red Sea he was engaged in transporting the Indian troops em- ployed in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. His bills for the repair of his ship at Calcutta were made the excuse for an attack on him and for charging him with the amount. It was just the time of the general reform of the dockyards, and there was much suspicion in the air. It was also the case that St Vincent did not like Popham, and that Benjamin Tucker (1762-1829), secretary to the admiralty, who had been the admiral's secretary, was his creature and sycophant. Popham was not the man to be snuffed out without an effort. He brought his case before Parliament, and was able to prove that there had been, if not deliberate dishonesty, at least the very grossest carelessness on the part of his assailants. In 1806 he co-operated with Sir David Baird in the occupation of the Cape. He then persuaded the authorities that, as the Spanish Colonies were discontented, it would be easy to promote a rising in Buenos Ayres. The attempt was made with Popham's squadron and 1400 soldiers; but the Spanish colonists, though discontented, were not disposed to accept British help, which would in all probability have been made an excuse for establishing dominion. They rose on the soldiers who landed, and took them prisoners. Popham was recalled, and censured by a court martial for leaving his station; but the City of London presented him with a sword of honour for his endeavours to " open new markets," and the sentence did him no harm. He held other commands in con- nexion with the movements of troops, was promoted rear admiral in 1814, and made K.C.B. in 1815. He died at Cheltenham on the loth of September 1820, leaving a large family. Popham was one of the most scientific seamen of his time. He did much useful survey work, and was the author of the code of signals adopted by the admiralty in 1803 and used for many years. POPHAM, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English judge, was born at Huntworth, in Somerset, about 1531. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple. Concerning his early life little is known, but he was probably a member of the parliament of 1558. He was recorder of Bristol, and represented that city in parliament in 1571 and from 1572 to 1583. He was elected Speaker in 1580, and in 1581 became attorney-general, a post which he occupied until his appoint- ment as lord chief justice in 1592. He presided at the trials of Sir Walter Raleigh and Guy Fawkes. Towards the end of his life Popham took a great interest in colonization, and was instrumental in procuring patents for the London and Plymouth companies for the colonization of Virginia. Popham was an advocate, too, of transportation abroad as a means of punishing rogues and vagabonds. His experiment in that direction, the Popham colony, an expedition under the leadership of his brother George (c. 1550-1608), had, however, but a brief career in its settlement (1607) on the Kennebec river. Popham died on the loth of June 1607, and was buried at Wellington, Somerset. See Foss, Lives of the Judges; ]. Winsor, History of America, vol. iii. POPILIA (or POPILLIA), VIA, the name of two ancient roads in Italy, (i) A highroad running from the Via Appia at Capua to Regium, a distance of 321 m. right along the length of the peninsula, and the main road through the interior of the country, not along the coast. It was built in 159 B.C. by the censor M. Popilius Laenias or in 132 B.C. by the consul P. Popilius. (2) A POPINJAY— POPLAR 89 highroad from Ariminum to Aquileia along the Adriatic coast. ii no doubt originally came into use when Aquileia was founded frontier fortress of Italy in 181 B.C., and Polybius gives the distance correctly as 1 78 m. In 13 2 it was reconstructed (munila) by the consul P. Popilius, one of whose milestones has been found near Atria. It ran along the shore strip (Lido) from Ari- minum to Ravenna (33 m.), where it was usual in imperial times for travellers to take ship and go by canal to Altinum (?.».), and there resume their journey by road, though we find the stations right through on the Tabula Peutingeriana, and Narses marched in 552 from Aquileia to Ravenna. (T. As.) POPINJAY (O. Fr. papegai, or popingay, onomatopoeic, original), an old name for a parrot. Except in its transferred sense of a dressed-up, vain or conceited, empty-headed person, the word is now only used historically of a representation or image of a parrot swinging from a high pole and used as a mark for archery or shooting matches. This snooting at the popinjay ARCHERY) was formerly a favourite sport. " Popinjay " is still the proper heraldic term for a parrot as a bearing or charge. POPLAR, an eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. by Hackney, S. by the river Thames, and W. by Stepney and Bethnal Green, and extending E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 168,822. The river Lea, which the eastern boundary generally follows, is believed to have been crossed towards the north of the modern borough by a Roman road, the existence of which is recalled by the district-name of Old Ford; while Bow (formerly Stratford- le-Bow or Stratford-atte-Bowe) was so named from the " bow " or arched bridge which took the place of the ford in the time of Henry II. South of these districts lies Bromley; in the south- east the borough includes Blackwall; and a deep southward bend of the Thames here embraces the Isle of Dogs. Poplar falls within the great area commonly associated with a poor and densely crowded population under the name of the " East End." It is a district of narrow, squalid streets and mean houses, among which, however, the march of modern improvement may be seen in the erection of model dwellings, mission houses and churches, and various public buildings. In the north a part of Victoria Park is included. In Blackwall and the Isle of Dogs streets give place to the extensive East and West India Docks (opened in 1806) and Millwall Dock, with shipbuilding, engineering, chemical and other works along the river. Blackwall has been a shipping centre from early times. From the south of the Isle of Dogs (the portion called Cubitt Town) a tunnel for foot- passengers (1902) connects with Greenwich on the opposite shore of the Thames, and lower down the river is the fine Black- wall tunnel, carrying a wide roadway, completed by the London County Council in 1897 at a cost, inclusive of incidental expenses, of £1,383,502. Among institutions the Poplar Accidents Hospital may be mentioned. Near the East India Docks is the settlement of St Frideswide, supported by Christ Church, Oxford. In Canning Town, which continues this district of poverty across the Lea, and so outside the county of London, are Mansfield House, founded from Mansfield College, Oxford; and a Women's Settlement, especially notable for its medical work. The metropolitan borough of Poplar includes the Bow and Bromley and the Poplar divisions of the Tower Hamlets parliamentary borough, each returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2327-7 acres. POPLAR (Lat. Populus), the name of a small group of catkin- bearing trees belonging to the order Salicaceae. The catkins of the poplars differ from those of the nearly allied willows in the presence of a rudimentary perianth, of obliquely cup-shaped form, within the toothed bracteal scales; the male flowers contain from eight to thirty stamens; the fertile bear a one- celled (nearly divided) ovary, surmounted by the deeply cleft stigmas; the two-valved capsule contains several seeds, each furnished with a long tuft of silky or cotton-like hairs. The leaves are broader than in most willows, and are generally either deltoid or ovate in shape, often cordate at the base, and frequently with slender petioles vertically flattened. Many of the species attain a large size, and all are of very rapid growth. The poplars are almost entirely confined to the north temperate zone, but a few approach or even pass its northern limit, and they are widely distributed within that area; they show, like the willows, a partiality for moist ground and often line the river-sides in otherwise treeless districts. There are about twenty species, but the number cannot be very accurately defined — several, usually regarded as distinct, being probably merely variable forms of the same type, and the ease with which the trees inter- cross has led to the appearance of many hybrids. All yield a soft, easily-worked timber, which, though very perishable when exposed to weather, possesses sufficient durability when kept dry to give the trees a certain economic value. Many of the species are used for paper-making. Of the European kinds one of the most important and best marked forms is the white poplar or abele, P. alba, a tree of large size, with rounded spreading head and curved branches, which, like the trunk, are covered with a greyish white bark, becoming much furrowed on old stems. The leaves are ovate or nearly round in general outline, but with deeply waved, more or less lobed and indented margins and cordate base; the upper side is of a dark green tint, but the lower surface is clothed with a dense white down, which likewise covers the young shoots — giving, with the bark, a hoary aspect to the whole tree. As in all poplars, the catkins expand in early spring, long before the leaves unfold; the ovaries bear four linear stigma lobes; the capsules ripen in May. A nearly related form, which may be regarded as a sub-species, canescens, the grey poplar of the nurseryman, is distinguished from the true abele by its smaller, less deeply cut leaves, which are grey on the upper side, but not so hoary beneath as those of P. alba; the pistil has eight stigma lobes. Both trees occasionally attain a height of 90 ft. or more, but rarely continue to form sound timber beyond the first half- century of growth, though the trunk will sometimes endure for a hundred and fifty years. The wood is very white, and, from its soft and even grain, is employed by turners and toy-makers, while, being tough and little liable to split, it is also serviceable for the construction of packing cases, the lining of carts and waggons, and many similar purposes; when thoroughly seasoned it makes good flooring planks, but shrinks much in drying, weighing about 58 Ib per cubic foot when green, but only 33$ Ib when dry. The white poplar is an ornamental tree, from its graceful though somewhat irregular growth and its dense hoary foliage; it has, however, the disadvantage of throwing up numerous suckers for some yards around the trunk. The grey and white poplars are usually multiplied by long cuttings; the growth is so rapid in a moist loamy soil that, according to Loudon, cuttings 9 ft. in length, planted beside a stream, formed in twelve years trunks 10 in. in diameter. Both these allied forms occur throughout central and southern Europe, but, though now abundant in England, it is doubtful whether they are there indigenous. P. alba suffers much from the ravages of wood-eating larvae, and also from fungoid growths, especially where the branches have been removed by pruning or accident. P. nigra, the black poplar, is a tree of large growth, with dark, deeply-furrowed bark on the trunk, and ash-coloured branches; the smooth deltoid leaves, serrated regularly on the margin, are of the deep green tint which has given name to the tree; the petioles, slightly compressed, are only about half the length of the leaves. The black poplar is common in central and southern Europe and in some of the adjacent parts of Asia, but, though abundantly planted in Britain, is not there indigenous. The wood is of a yellowish tint. In former days this was the preva- lent poplar in Britain, and the timber was employed for the purposes to which that of other species is applied, but has been superseded by P. monilifera and its varieties; it probably fur- nished the poplar wood of the Romans, which, from its lightness and soft tough grain, was in esteem for shield-making; in con- tinental Europe it is still in some request; the bark, in Russia, is used for tanning leather, while in Kamchatka it is sometimes 9o POPLIN— POPOCATEPETL ground up and mixed with meal; the gum secreted by the buds was employed by the old herbalists for various medicinal purposes, but is probably nearly inert; the cotton-like down of the seed has been converted into a kind of vegetable felt, and has also been used in paper-making. A closely related form is the well-known Lombardy poplar, P. fasligiata, remarkable for its tall, cypress-like shape, caused by the nearly vertical growth of the branches. Probably a mere variety of the black poplar, its native land appears to have been Persia or some neighbouring country; it was unknown in Italy in the days of Pliny, while from remote times it has been an inhabitant of Kashmir, the Punjab, and Persia, wheie it is often planted along loadsides for the purpose of shade; it was probably brought from these countries to southern Europe, and derives its popular name from its abundance along the banks of the Po and other rivers of Lombardy, where it is said now to spring up naturally from seed, like the indigenous black poplar. It was introduced into France in 1749, and appears to have been grown in Germany and Britain soon after the middle of the last century, if not earlier. The Lombardy poplar is valuable chiefly as an orna- mental tree, its timber being of very inferior quality; its tall, erect growth renders it useful to the landscape-gardener as a relief to the rounded forms of other trees, or in contrast to the horizontal lines of the lake or river-bank where it delights to grow. In Lombardy and France tall hedges are sometimes formed of this poplar for shelter or shade, while in the suburban parks of Britain it is serviceable as a screen for hiding buildings or other unsightly objects from view; its growth is extremely rapid, and it often attains a height of 100 ft. and upwards, while from 70 to 80 ft. is an ordinary size in favourable situa- tions. P. canadensis, the " cotton-wood " of the western prairies, and its varieties are perhaps the most useful trees of the genus, often forming almost the only arborescent vegetation on the great American plains. It is a tree of rather large growth, sometimes 100 ft. high, with rugged grey trunk 7 or 8 ft. in diameter, and with the shoots or young branches more or less angular; the glossy deltoid leaves are sharply pointed, somewhat cordate at the base, and with flattened petioles; the fertile catkins ripen about the middle of June, when their opening capsules discharge the cottony seeds which have given the tree its common western name; in New England it is sometimes called the " river poplar." The cotton-wood timber, though soft and perishable, is of value in its prairie habitats, where it is frequently the only available wood either for carpentry or fuel ; it has been planted to a considerable extent in some parts of Europe, but in England a form of this species known as P. monilifera is generally preferred from its larger and more rapid growth. In this well-known variety the young shoots are but slightly angled, and the branches in the second year become round; the deltoid short-pointed leaves are usually straight or even rounded at the base, but sometimes are slightly cordate; the capsules ripen in Britain about the middle of May. This tree is of extremely rapid growth, and has been known to attain a height of 70 ft. in sixteen years; it succeeds best in deep loamy soil, but will flourish in nearly any moist but well-drained situation. The timber is much used in some rural districts for flooring, and is durable for indoor purposes when protected from dry-rot; it has, like most poplar woods, the property of resisting fire better than other timber. The native country of this form has been much disputed ; but, though still known in many British nurseries as the " black Italian poplar," it is now well ascer- tained to be an indigenous tree in many parts of Canada and the States, and is a mere variety of P. canadensis; it seems to have been first brought to England from Canada in 1772. In America it seldom attains the large size it often acquires in England, and it is there of less rapid growth than the prevailing form of the western plains; the name of " cotton-wood " is locally given to other species. P. macrpphylla or candicans, commonly known as the Ontario poplar, is remarkable for its very large heart-shaped leaves, some- times 10 in. long; it is found in New England and the milder parts of Canada, and is frequently planted in Britain; its growth is extremely rapid in moist land ; the buds are covered with a balsamic secretion. _The true balsam poplar, or tacamahac, P. balsamifera, abundant in most parts of Canada and the northern States, is a tree of rather large growth, often of somewhat fastigiate habit, with round shoots and oblong-ovate sharp-pointed leaves, the base never cordate, the petioles round, and the disk deep glossy green above but somewhat downy below. This tree, the " Hard " of the Canadian voyageur, abounds on many of the river sides of the north- western plains; it occurs in the neighbourhood of the Great Slave Lake and along the Mackenzie River, and forms much of the drift- wood of the Arctic coast. In these northern habitats it attains a large size; the wood is very soft; the buds yield a gum-like balsam, from which the common name is derived; considered valuable as an antiscorbutic, this is said also to have diuretic properties; it was formerly imported into Europe in small quantities under the name of " baume focot," being scraped off in the spring and put into shells. This balsam gives the tree a fragrant odour when the leaves are unfolding. The tree grows well in Britain, and acquires occasionally a considerable size. Its fragrant shoots and the fine yellow green of the young leaves recommend it to the ornamental planter. It is said by Aiton to have been introduced into Britain about the end of the 1 7th century. P. euphratica, believed to be the weeping willow of the Scriptures, is a large tree remarkable for the variability in the shape of its leaves, which are linear in young trees and vigorous shoots, and broad and ovate on older branches. It is a native of North Africa and Western and Central Asia, including North-West India. With the date palm it is believed to have furnished the rafters for the buildings of Nineveh. POPLIN, or TABINET, a mixed textile fabric consisting of a silk warp with a weft of worsted yarn. As the weft is in the form of a stout cord the fabric has a ridged structure, like rep, which gives depth and softness to the lustre of the silky surface. Poplins are used for dress purposes, and for rich upholstery work. The manufacture is of French origin; but it was brought to England by the Huguenots, and has long been specially associated with Ireland. The French manufacturers distinguish between popelines unies or plain poplins and popelines d dis- positions or £cossaises, equivalent to Scotch tartans, in both of which a large trade is done with the United States from Lyons. POPOCATEPETL (Aztec popoca " to smoke," tepetl " moun- tain "), a dormant volcano in Mexico in lat. 18° 59' 47" N., long. 98° 33' i* W., which with the neighbouring Ixtaccihuatl (Aztec " white woman ") forms the south-eastern limit of the great basin known as the " Valley of Mexico." As it lies in the state of Puebla and is the dominating feature in the views from the city of that name, it is sometimes called the Puebla volcano. It is the second highest summit in Mexico, its shapely, snow-covered cone rising to a height of 17,876 ft., or 438 ft. short of that of Orizaba. This elevation was reported by the Mexican geological survey in 1895, and as the Mexican Geo- graphical Society calculated the elevation at 17,888 ft., it may be accepted as nearly correct. The bulk of the mountain con- sists of andesite, but porphyry, obsidian, trachyte, basalt, and other similar rocks are also represented. It has a stratified cone showing a long period of activity. At the foot of the eastern slope stretches a vast lava field — the " malpays " (malapais) of Atlachayacatl — which, according to Humboldt, lies 60 to 80 ft. above the plain and extends 18,000 ft. east to west with a breadth of 6000 ft. Its formation must be of great antiquity. The ascent of Popocatepetl is made on the north- eastern slope, where rough roads are kept open by sulphur carriers and timber cutters. Describing his ascent in 1904, Hans Gadow states that the forested region begins in the foot- hills a little above 8000 ft., and continues up the slope to an elevation of over 13,000 ft. On the lower slopes the forest is composed in great part of the long-leaved Pinus liophylla, accompanied by deciduous oaks and a variety of other trees and shrubs. From about 9500 ft. to 11,500 ft. the Mexican " oyamel," or fir (Abies religiosa) becomes the principal species, interspersed with evergreen oak, arbutus and elder. Above this belt the firs gradually disappear and are succeeded by the short- leaved Pinus montezumae, or Mexican " ocote " — one of the largest species of pine in the republic. These continue to the upper tree-line, accompanied by red and purple Pcntslemon and light blue lupins in the open spaces, some ferns, and occasional masses of alpine flowers. Above the tree line the vegetation continues only a comparatively short distance, consisting chiefly of tussocks of coarse grass, and occasional flowering plants, the highest noted being a little Draba. At about 14,500 ft. horses are left behind, though they could be forced farther up through the loose lava and ashes. On the snow-covered cone the heat of the sun is intense, though the thermometer recorded a temperature of 34° in September. The reflection of light from the snow is blinding. The rim of the crater is reached at an elevation of about 17,500 ft. Another descrip- tion places the snow-line at 14,268 ft., and the upper tree-line POPPER— POPPY OIL 91 a thousand feet lower. A detailed description of the volcano published by the Mexican geological survey in 1895 accord- ing to which the crater is elliptical in form, 2008 by 1312 ft., and i depth of 1657 ft. below the summit of the highest pinnacle and 673 ft. below the lowest part of the rim, which is very irregular in height. The steep, ragged walls of the crater show a great variety of colours, intensified by the light from the deep blue sky above. Huge patches of sulphur, some still smouldering, are everywhere visible, intermingled with the white streaks of snow and ice that fill the crevices and cover the ledges of the black rocks. The water from the melted snow forms a small lake at the bottom of the crater, from which it filters through fissures to the heated rocks below and thence escapes as steam or through other fissures to the mineral springs at the moun- tain's base. The Indian sulphur miners go down by means 'of ladders, or are lowered by rope and windlass, and the mineral is sent down the mountain side in a chute 2000 to 3000 ft. Some observers report that steam is to be seen rising from fissures in the bottom of the crater, and all are united in speaking of the fumes of burning sulphur that rise from its depths. That volcanic influences are still present may be inferred from the circumstance that the snow cap on Popocatepetl disappeared just before the remarkable series of earthquakes that shook the whole of central Mexico on the 3oth and 315! of July 1909. It is believed that Diego de Ordaz was the first European to reach the summit of Popocatepetl, though no proof of this remains further than that Cortes sent a party of ten men in 1519 to ascend a burning mountain. In 1522 Francisco Montano made the ascent and had himself let down into the crater a depth of 40x3 or 500 ft. No second ascent is recorded until April and November iS.'7 (see Brantz Mayer, Mexico, vol. ii.). Other ascents were made in 1834, 1848 and subsequent years, members of the Mexican geological survey spending two days on the summit in 1895- POPPER, DAVID (1846- ), Bohemian violoncellist, was born at Prague, and educated musically at the conservatorium there, adopting the 'cello as his professional instrument. He was soon recognized, largely through von Bulow, as one of the finest soloists of the time, and played on tours throughout the European capitals. In 1872 he married the pianist Sophi Menter, from whom he was separated in 1886. In 1896 he became professor at the Royal Conservatoire at Budapest. He published various works, mainly compositions for the 'cello, together with four volumes of studies arranged as a violoncello school. POPPO, ERNST FRIEDRICH (1794-1866), German classical scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Guben in Brandenburg on the I3th of August, 1794. In 1818 he was appointed director of the gymnasium at Frankfort -on-the-Oder, where he died on the 6th of November 1866, having resigned his post three years before. Poppo was an extremely successful teacher and organizer, and in a few years doubled the number of pupils at the gymnasium. He is chiefly known, however, for his exhaustive and complete edition of Thucydides in four parts (n vols., 1821-1840), containing (i.) prolegomena on Thucydides as an historian and on his language and style (Eng. trans, by G. Burges, 1837), accompanied by historical and geographical essays; (ii.) text with scholia and critical notes; (iii.) commentary on the text and scholia; (iv.) indices and appendices. For the ordinary student a smaller edition (1843-1851) was prepared, revised after the author's death by J. M. Stahl (1875-1889). See R. Schwarze in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic and authorities there referred to. POPPY, in botany, a genus of plants known botanically as Papai-er, the type of the family or natural order Papaveraceae. They are annual and perennial erect herbs containing a milky juice, with lobed or cut leaves and generally long-stalked regular showy flowers, which are nodding in the bud stage. The sepals, very rarely three, which are two in number, fall off as the flower opens, the four (very rarely five or six) petals, which are crumpled in the bud stage, also fall readily. The numerous stamens surround the ovary, which is composed of 4 to 16 carpels and is surmounted by a flat or convex rayed disk bearing the stigmas. The ovary is incompletely divided into many chambers by the ingrowth of the placentas which bear numerous ovules and form in the fruit a many-seeded short capsule opening by small valves below the upper edge. The valves are hydroscopic, responding to increase in the amount of moisture in the atmo- sphere by closing the apertures. In dry weather the valves open, and the small seeds are ejected through the pores when the capsule is shaken by the wind on its long stiff slender stalk. The flowers contain no honey and are visited by pollen-seeking insects, which alight on the broad stigmatic surface. The genus contains about 40 species, mostly natives of central and south Europe and temperate Asia. Five species are British; P. Rhoeas is the common scarlet poppy found in cornfields and waste places. Cultivated forms of this, with exquisite shades of colour and without any blotch at the base of the petals, are known as Shirley poppies. P. somniferum, the opium poppy, with large white or blue-purple flowers, is widely cultivated (see OPIUM). The Oriental poppy (P. orienlale) and its several varieties are fine garden plants, having huge bright crimson flowers with black blotches at the base. Many hybrid forms of varying shades of colour have been raised of late years. The Iceland poppy (P. undicaule), is one of the showiest species, having grey-green pinnate leaves and flowers varying in colour from pure white to deep orange-yellow, orange-scarlet, &c. Specially fine varieties with stalks 18-24 in- high are cultivated on a large scale by some growers for market. The Welsh poppy belongs to an allied genus, Meconopsis; it is a perennial herb with a yellow juice and pale yellow poppy-like flowers. It is native in the south-west and north of England, and in Wales; also in Ireland. The prickly poppy (Argemone grandiflora) is a fine Mexican perennial with large white flowers. To the same family belongs the horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, found in sandy sea-shores and characterized by the waxy bloom of its leaves and large golden-yellow short-stalked flowers. Another member of the family is Eschscholtzia cali- fornica, a native of western North America, and well-known in gardens, with orange-coloured flowers and a long two-valved fruit pod. The plume poppy (Bocconia cordate and B. microcarpa) are ornamental foliage plants of great beauty. The cyclamen poppy (Eomecon chionantha) is a pretty Chinese perennial, having roundish slightly lobed leaves and pure white flowers about 2 in. across. The tree poppy (Dendromecon rigidum) is a Calif ornian shrub about 3 ft. high, having golden-yellow flowers about 2 in. across. The Californian poppy (Platystemon cali- fornicus) is a pretty annual about a foot high, having yellow flowers with 3 sepals and 6 petals; and the white bush poppy (Romneya Coulteri) is a very attractive perennial and semi- shrubby plant 2-8 ft. high, with pinnatind leaves and large sweet scented white flowers often 6 in. across. POPPY HEADS, a term, in architecture, given to the finials or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends, either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads, sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliages or finials, and sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cut out of the thickness of the bench end and chamfered. The term is probably derived from the French poupee, doll, puppet, used also in this sense, or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape. POPPY OIL (Oleum papavcris), a vegetable oil obtained by pressure from the minute seeds of the garden or opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The white-seeded and black-seeded varieties are both used for oil-pressing; but, when the production of oil is the principal object of the culture, the black seed is usually preferred. The qualities of the oil yielded by both varieties and the proportion they contain (from 50 to 60%) are the same. By cold pressing seeds of fine quality yield from 30 to 40% of virgin or white oil (huile blanche), a transparent limpid fluid with a slight yellowish tinge, bland and pleasant to taste, and with almost no perceptible smell. On second pressure with the aid of heat an additional 20 to 25% of inferior oil (huile de fabrique or huile russe) is obtained, reddish in colour, possessed POPULATION of a biting taste, and a linseed-like smell. The oil belongs to the linoleic or drying series, having as its principal constituent linolein; and it possesses greater drying power than raw linseed oil. Its specific gravity at 15° C. is 0-925. Poppy oil is a valu- able and much used medium for artistic oil painting. The fine qualities are largely used in the north of France (huile d' ceillette) and in Germany as a salad oil, and are less liable than olive oil to rancidity. The absence of taste and characteristic smell in poppy oil also leads to its being much used for adulterating olive oil. The inferior qualities are principally consumed in soap- making and varnish-making, and for burning in lamps. The oil is very extensively used in the valley of the Ganges and other opium regions for food and domestic purposes. By native methods in India about 30 % of oil is extracted, and the remain- ing oleaginous cake is used as food by the poor. Ordinary poppy-oil cake is a valuable feeding material, rich in nitrogenous constituents, with an ash showing an unusually large proportion of phosphoric acid. The seed of the yellow horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, yields from 30 to 35% of an oil having the same drying and other properties as poppy oil; and from the Mexican poppy, Argemone mcxicana, is obtained a non-drying oil used as a lubricant and for burning. POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; popular -e, to populate), a term used in two different significations, (i) for the total number of human beings existing within certain area at a given time, and (2) for the " peopling " of the area, or the influence of the various forces of which that number is the result. The popu- lation of a country, in the former sense of the word, is ascertained by means of a census (q.v.), which periodically records the number of people found in it on a certain date. Where, as is generally the case, detail of sex, age, conjugal condition and birthplace is included in the return, the census results can be co-ordinated with those of the parallel registration of marriages, births, deaths and migration, thus forming the basis of what are summarily termed vital statistics, the source of our information regarding the nature and causes of the process of " peopling," i.e. the movement of the population between one census and another. Neither of these two operations has yet reached perfection, either in scope or accuracy, though the census, being the subject of special and concentrated effort, is generally found the superior in the latter respect, and is in many cases taken in countries where registration has not yet been introduced. The countries where neither is in force ate still, unfortunately, very numerous. The Population of the World, and its Geographical Distribution. — Man is the only animal which has proved able to pass from dependence upon its environment to a greater or less control over it. He alone, accordingly, has spread over every quarter of the globe. The area and population of the world, as a whole, have been the subject of many estimates in scientific works for the last three centuries and are still to a considerable extent matters of rough approximation. Every decade, however, brings a diminution of the field of conjecture, as some form of civilized administration is extended over the more backward tracts, and is followed, in due course, by a survey and a census. It is not necessary, therefore, to cite the estimates framed before 1882, when a carefully revised summary was published by Boehm and H. Wagner. Since then the laborious investigations of P. F. Levasseur and L. Bodio have been completed in the case of Europe and America, and, for the rest of the world, the figures annually brought up to date in the Statesman's Year Book may be taken to be the best avail- able. From these sources the abstract at foot of page has been derived. The principal tracts still un- measured and unenumerated (in any strict sense) in the Old World are the Turkish Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese peninsula and nearly nine-tenths of Africa. In the same category must be placed a considerable proportion of central, southern and Polar America (see CENSUS). There is little of the world which is entirely uninhabited; still less permanently uninhabitable and unlikely to be required to support a population in the course of the expansion of the race beyond its present abodes. Probably the polar regions alone do not fall within the category of the poten- tially productive, as even sandy and alkaline desert is rendered habitable where irrigation can be introduced; and vast tracts of fertile soil adapted for immediate exploitation, especially in the temperate zones, both north and south, only remain unpeopled because they are not yet wanted for colonization. The geographical distribution of the population of the world is therefore extremely irregular, and, omitting from consideration areas but recently colonized, the density is regulated by the means of subsistence within reach. " La population," says G. de Molinari, " a tendance de se proportionner a son debouche." These, in their turn, depend mainly upon the character of the people who inhabit the country. Even amongst savages there are few communities, and those but sparse, which subsist entirely upon what is directly provided by nature. As human intelli- gence and industry come into play the means of livelihood are proportionately extended; population multiplies, and with this multiplication production increases. Thus, the higher densities are found in the eastern hemisphere, within the zone in which arose the great civilizations of the world, or, roughly speaking, between north parallels 25 and 40 towards the east, and 25 and 55 in the west. Here large areas with a mean density of over 500 to the sq. m. may be found either supported by the food directly produced by themselves, as in the great agricultural plains of the middle kingdom of China and the Ganges valley and delta; or else, as in western Europe, relying largely upon food from abroad, purchased by the products of manufacturing industry. In the one class the density is mainly rural, in the other it is chiefly due to the . concentration of the population into large urban aggregates. It is chiefly from the populations of the south-west of Europe that the New World is being colo- nized; but the territories over which the settlers and their recruits from abroad are able to scatter are so extensive that even the lower densities of the Old World have not yet been attained, except in a few tracts along the eastern coasts of Australia and North America. Details of area and population are given under the headings of the respective countries, and the only general point in connexion with the relation between these two facts which may be mentioned here is the need to bear in mind that the larger the territory the less likely is its mean density-figure to be typical or really representative. Even in the case of small and comparatively homogeneous countries such as Holland, Belgium or Saxony there is considerable deviation from the mean in the density of the respective component subdivisions, a difference which when extended over more numerous aggre- gates often renders the general mean misleading or of little value. Distribution of Population by Sex. — After geographical dis- persion, the most general feature amongst the human race is its division by sex. The number of speculations as to the nature of this distinction has been, it is said, well-nigh doubled since Drelincourt, in the i8th century, brought together 262 " ground- less hypotheses," and propounded on his own part a theory TABLE I. Continent. Sq. m. in thousands (1907)-. Population, in thousands. Population per sq. m. (1907). Unascertained Percentage of : 1882. 1907. Area un- surveyed. Population Unenumerated. Europe . Asia . Africa . . America . Oceania . 3,828* J5.773 1 1, 507 17,208* 3.448 327.743 795.591 205,823 100,415 4.232 405.759 918,324 126,734 149.944 5,881 io6f 58 II 9t i-7 2-5* 43-2 90-1 50-0* 5-4 i-3 59-4 77-4 9-1 19-6 Total . . 5L/64 1 ,433,804 1,606,542 3i-7t 50-4* 41-4 Including Polar regions. t Excluding Polar regions. POPULATION 93 which has since been held to be the 263rd in the series. It is not proposed to deal here with incidents appertaining to the " ante-natal gloom," and we are concerned only with human beings when once they have been born. In regard to the division of these into male and female, the first point to be noted is that, in all communities of western civilization, more boys are born than girls. The excess ranges from 20 to 60 per thousand. In Greece and Rumania it is exceptionally high, and in some Oriental or semi-Oriental countries it is said to give place to a deficit, though in the latter case the returns are probably not trustworthy. From the more accurate statistics available it appears that the excess of male births varies amongst different races and also at different times in the same community. It is high in new colonies and amongst the Latin races, with the exception of the French. These, with the English, show a much smaller excess of boy-births than the average of western Europe, and the proportion, moreover, seems to be somewhat declining in both these countries and in Belgium, from causes which have not yet been ascertained. As the mortality amongst boys, especially during the first year, is considerably above that of the other sex, numerical equilibrium between the two is estab- lished in early youth, and in most cases girls outnumber boys, except for a few years between twelve and sixteen. Then follows the chequered period of the prime of life and middle age, during which the liability of men to industrial accidents, war and other causes of special mortality, irrespective of their greater incli- nation to emigrate, is generally sufficient to outweigh the dangers of childbirth or premature decay among the women, who tend, accordingly, to predominate in number at this stage. In old age, again, their vitality rises superior to that of the men, and they continue to form the majority of the community. The general results are an excess of females over males throughout western Europe: but though the relative proportions vary from time to time, remaining always in favour of what is conventionally called the weaker sex, it is impossible, owing to disturbing factors like war and migration, to ascertain whether there is any general tendency for the proportion of females to increase or not. In comparatively new settlements, largely fed by immigration, the number of males is obviously likely to be greater than that of females, but in the case of countries in Asia and eastern Europe in which also a considerable deficiency of the latter sex is indi- cated by the returns, it is probable that the strict seclusion imposed by convention on women and the consequent reticence regarding them on the part of the householders answering the official inquiry tend towards a short count. On the other hand, the lower position there assigned to women and the very considerable amount of hard work exacted from them, may cause them to wear out earlier than under higher conditions, though not to the extent implied in the statistics. In the TABLE II. Bd g* Jj E. Country. \l ?l Country. S~* IB •i-" '& 8 *a Is i2 Sweden 1 Norway ] Finland 1049 1064 1022 946 944 948 Galicia . Hungary Rumania . 1019 1009 964 941 949 902 I Denmark f England •f Scotland 1 Ireland 1053 1069 1057 1028 95° 966 956 946 . Greece . Servia . Bulgaria Russia . 921 946 959 879 945 927 ("Holland I Belgium 1 Germany L Austria . (France . Italy . 1025 1013 1029 1042 1033 IOII 950 956 95° 947 960 947 (Europe) f Russia (Asia) ) Japan . 1 India I Egypt . f United States IOII 893 983 963 967 958 948 Spam Portugal 1049 "093 938 899 Canada J Argentine . 952 893 — • I Cape Colony 977 — Australia 906 950 L •• New Zealand . 900 following table the latest available information on this head is given for representative countries of western and eastern Europe, the East and the New World. Distribution by Age. — Few facts are more uncertain about an individual than the number of years he will live. Few, on the contrary, as was pointed out by C. Babbage, are less subject to fluctuation than the duration of life amongst people taken in large aggregates. The age-constitution of a community does indeed vary, and to a considerable extent, in course of time, but the changes are usually gradual, and often spread over a genera- tion or more. At the same time, it must be admitted that those which have recently taken place amongst most of the communities of western Europe are remarkable for both their rapidity and their extent; and are probably attributable, in part at least, to influences which were almost inoperative at the time when Babbage wrote. The distribution of a population amongst the different periods of life is regulated, in normal circumstances, by the birth-rate, and, as the mortality at some of the periods is far greater than at others, the death-rate falls indirectly under the same influence. The statistics of age, there- fore, may be said to form a link between those of the population, considered as a fixed quantity, as at a census, and those which record its movement from year to year. To the correct interpre- tation of the latter, indeed, they are essential, as will appear below. Unfortunately, the return of age is amongst the less satisfactory results of a general enumeration, though its inaccu- racy, when spread over millions of persons, is susceptible of correction mathematically, to an extent to make it serve its purpose in the directions above indicated. The error in the original return generally arises from ignorance. An illiterate population is very prone to state its age in even multiples of five, and even where education is widely spread this tendency is not altogether absent, as may be seen from the examples given in TABLE III. Number returned at each age per 10,000 of Population. United States, Russia, 1897. Age. Germany, i nfirt 1900. India, 1 yiAJ. Native Asia, 1891 Females. Whites. Negroes. Europe. Females. 19 I 80 196 204 1 66 112 64 20 182 200 252 223 385 505 21 181 191 204 M3 "3 54 29 130 146 119 92 60 42 3<> 149 170 218 269 456 624 31 145 125 76 74 74 30 49 88 72 62 45 3» 12 5" 94 84 156 196 257 386 51 89 61 38 35 34 12 59 62 43 30 25 18 IO 60 70 49 '05 163 179 281 61 60 33 15 22 25 II Table III. Deliberate mis-statements, too, are not unknown, especially amongst women. This has been repeatedly illustrated in the English census reports. Irrespective of the wish of women between 25 and 40 to return themselves as under 25, there appears to be the more practical motive of obtaining better terms in industrial insurance, whilst an overstatement of age often has, it is said, the object of getting better wages in domestic service, or better dietary in the workhouse! In all countries, moreover, there seems to be an inclination to exaggerate longevity after the three score years and ten have been passed. In order to minimize the results of such inaccuracy, the return of ages is compiled in aggregates of five or ten years and then redistributed over single years by the method of differences. The present purpose being merely to illustrate the variation of distribution amongst a few representative countries, it is unnecessary to enter into more detail than such as will serve to distinguish the proportions of the population in main divisions of life. Thus it may be said that in the west of Europe about one-third of the people, roughly speaking, are under fifteen; about one-half, between that age and fifty, and the remaining sixth older than fifty. The middle period 94 POPULATION may conveniently be extended to sixty and subdivided at forty, as is done in Table IV. The differences between the several countries in their age-constitution can best be appreciated by reference to some recognized general standard. The one here adopted is the result of the co-ordination of a long series of enumerations taken in Sweden during the last century and a half, prepared by Dr G. Sundbarg of Stockholm. It is true that for practical use in connexion with vital statistics for a given period, the aggregate age-distribution of the countries concerned would be a more accurate basis of comparison, but the wide period covered by the Swedish observations has the advantage of eliminating temporary disturbances of the balance of ages, and may thus be held to compensate for the compara- tively narrow geographical extent of the field to which it relates. TABLE IV. Country. Census Year. Per 1000 of Population. Under 15. 15-40. 40-60. Over 60. Standard . — 336 3S9 192 S3 Sweden . 1900 324 366 191 119 Norway . M 354 36i 176 109 Finland . ,f 345 386 187 82 Denmark " 339 376 1 86 99 England . I9OI 324 423 179 74 Scotland . ,, 334 416 173 77 Ireland . It 304 407 180 109 Holland . . . 1899 348 384 175 93 Belgium . 1900 3>7 404 184 95 Germany it 348 395 179 78 Austria . " 344 402 182 72 France 1901 261 389 226 124 Italy . . . ,, 341 366 196 97 Portugal . 1900 338 375 191 96 Galicia „ 377 399 178 46 Hungary ,, 356 379 189 76 Servia ,, 419 395 142 44 Bulgaria ,, 414 322 172 92 Greece 1889 393 400 155 52 Russia (Europe) 1897 350 385 1 80 85 India (males) 1891 391 399 163 47 Japan 1898 335 384 >93 88 United States . 1900 334 422 169 75 Canada . 1901 346 409 1 68 77 Australasia . „ 349 43i «57 63 Cape Colony 1904 4'5 409 129 47 As regards correspondence with the standard distribution, it will be noted that Finland, the next country to Sweden geo- graphically, comes after Japan, far detached from northern Europe by both race and distance, and is followed by Portugal, where the conditions are also very dissimilar. The other Scandinavian countries, Norway and Denmark, appear, like Sweden itself in the present day, to bear in their age-distribution distinct marks of the emigration of adults, or, at least, the temporary absence from home of this class at the time of enume- ration. The same can be said of Italy in its later returns and of Germany in those before 1895. On the contrary, the effect of the inflow of adult migrants is very marked, as is to be expected, in the returns for the new countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australasia. In the case of the Old World, the divergence from the standard which most deserves notice is the remarkable preponderance of the young in all the countries of eastern Europe, as well as in India, accompanied by an equally notable deficiency of the older elements in the population. Again, there are in the west two well-known instances of deficient reinforcement of the young, France and Ireland, in which countries the proportion of those under 15 falls respectively 75 and 32 per mille below the standard; throwing those over 60 up to 41 and 26 per mille above it. The table does not in- clude figures for earlier enumerations, but one general character- istic in them should be mentioned, viz. the far higher proportion borne in them of the young, as compared with the mere recent returns. In England, for instance, those under 15 amounted to 360 per mille in 1841, against 324 sixty years later. In Ireland the corresponding fall has been still more marked, from 382 to 304. The ratio in France was low throughout the ipth century, and during the last half fell only from 273 to 261, raising the proportion of the old above that resulting in northern Europe and Italy from emigration. It is remarkable that the same tendency for the proportion of the young to fall off is perceptible in new countries as well as in the older civilizations, setting aside the influence of immigration at the prime of life in depressing the proportion of children. The possible causes of this wide- spread tendency of the mean age of a western community to increase appertain to the subject of the movement of the population, which is dealt with below. The Movement of Population. — " The true greatness of a State " says Bacon, " consisteth essentially in population and breed of men "; and an increasing population is one of the most certain signs of the well-being of a community. Successive accretions, however, being spread over so long a term as that of human life, it does not follow that the population at any given time is necessarily the result of contemporary prosperity. Con- versely, the traces left by a casual set-back, such as famine, war, or an epidemic disease, remain long after it has been succeeded by a period of recuperation, and are to be found in the age- constitution and the current vital statistics. Population is continually in a state of motion, and in large aggregates the direction is invariably towards increase. The forces underlying the movement may differ from time to time in their respective intensity, and, in highly exceptional cases, may approach equilibrium, their natural tendencies being interrupted by special causes, but the instances of general decline are confined to wild and comparatively small communities brought into contact with alien and more civilized races. The factors upon which the growth of a population depend are internal, operating within the community, or external, arising out of the relations of the community with other countries. In the latter case, population already in existence is transferred from one territory to another by migration, a subject which will be referred to later. Far more important is the vegetative, or " natural " increase, through the excess of births over deaths. The principal influences upon this, in civilized life, are the number of the married, the age at which they marry or bear children, the fertility of marriages and the duration of life, each of which is in some way or other connected with the others. Marriage. — In every country a small and generally diminish- ing proportion of the children is born out of wedlock, but the primary regulator of the native growth of a community is the institution of marriage. Wherever, it has been said, there is room for two to live up to the conventional standard of comfort, a marriage takes place. So close, indeed, up to recent times, was the connexion held to be between the prosperity of the country and the number of marriages, that Dr W. Farr used to call the latter the barometer of the former. The experience of the present generation, however, both in England and other countries, seems to justify some relaxation of that view, as will appear below. The tendency of a community towards matri- mony, or its " nuptiality," as it is sometimes termed, is usually indicated by the ratio to the total population of the persons married each year. For the purpose of comparing the circum- stances of the same community at successive periods this method is fairly trustworthy, assuming that there has been no material shifting of the age-proportions during the intervals. It is not a safe guide, however, when applied to the comparison of different communities, the age-composition of which is probably by no means identical, but in consideration of its familiarity it has been adopted in the first section of Table V. below, at three periods for each of the countries selected as representative. One of the features which is prominent throughout the return is that in every country except Belgium the rate per mille attained a maximum in the early seventies, and has since shown POPULATION 95 a descending tendency, notwithstanding the fact, noted in the preceding paragraph, that the youthful population, which, of course, weighs down the rate, has also been relatively decreasing. Countries of Oriental and semi-Oriental habits have not been n, owing to the difference in their marriage system from that of western Europe. It may be mentioned, however, in passing, that their marriage rate is generally considerably higher than that here indicated, as may be seen from the example of Galicia, which is here shown separately from cis-Leithian Austria. TABLE years of age and decreases rapidly as that period is left behind. A Swedish return of 1896-1900 shows that the annual births per thousand wives of 20-25 are fewer by nearly 17% than those of wives under 20. Between 25 and 30 the number falls off by one- fifth, and after 40 by about 44%. In the countries mentioned in Table V. the average proportion borne by wives under 30 to the total under 45 is just over one-third. That proportion is exceeded in southern Europe, where women develop earlier, and in Galicia. In England and France it stands at V. Country. Per 1000 of Population. Persons Married Yearly. Women, 15 to 45 (1900). Men, 20-50. 1861-1870. 1871-1875. 1895-1904. Total. Married. Unmarried. Unmarried. I3-I 13-3 15-5 14-9 16-7 14-0 10-5 16-4 17-0 15-0 16-1 15-6 15-2 19-7 14-0 14-6 17-9 15-9 17-1 14-9 10-7 16-6 18-9 I5-! 177 16-9 15-6 19-7 I2-O 13-2 I4-I 14-6 15-8 14-3 IO-I 14-9 16-4 16-4 15-7 15-2 14-4 17-6 215 218 219 221 250 242 235 218 226 230 227 228 214 225 88 91 I03 104 "7 1 02 76 96 114 1 08 106 1 20 116 125 «3 1 02 "5 in 127 135 153 118 107 "7 i«5 IOO 92 94 83 71 70 81 77 90 125 82 76 85 85 82 71 67 Holland ( irrmany Austria (W.) ...... Italy Galicia In the opposite direction will be noted the case of Ireland, where the rate is abnormally low; and returns more recent than those included in the table show that of late the rates in Sweden and Norway have also fallen to but little above n per mille. In regard to the necessity of taking into consideration the factor of age in the return of marriage-rates, an example may be here given from the data for England. The rate taken upon the total population was 16-7 per mille in 1870-1871 and 15-3 in 1905; by excluding the population under fifteen the corre- sponding figures are 57-2 and 46-6 per mille. Thus the decline, which by the first method is only 8%, becomes, by the second, 19%; and if the age-distribution of 1905 were reduced to that of the earlier period, the difference would increase to -22%, the most accurate figure of the three. For the present purpose it is sufficient to connect the rate of marriage with that of births by using as a basis for the former the number of women of conceptive age, or between 15 and 45 years old. The propor- tion of these is given in the latter portion of the table. Again taking England as an example, the women of the above ages bore the proportion to the total population of 23% in 1871 and had risen to 25% in 1901; but at the former time, 49-6% were married, whilst thirty years later, only 46-8 were thus situated. The table also shows that the proportion of the women of the ages in question who were married exceeds half only in Italy, France and Germany, not to mention Galicia. In other countries the average proportion is about 45%. In Sweden and Norway it is only 41 and in Ireland less than a third. In Scandinavia, and perhaps in Italy, the rate may be affected by the emigration of adult males, but the later columns of the table indicate that this is not the cause of the low rate in Ireland, which appears to be mainly due to abstinence from marriage at the ages specified. Next to the proportion of the married to the total marriageable the most important factor connected with the natural increase of the population is the age at which marriage takes place. Where the proportion of the married is high, the average age of the wives is low, and early marriage is conducive to relatively rapid increase. In the first place, the interval between genera- tions is shortened, and the elder is contemporaneous with the younger for a longer period. Then, again, the fecundity of women amongst western peoples is at its maximum between 18 and 25 36. In Ireland and Sweden it is only 28, and in Denmark, Holland and Norway, too, it is below the average. The registrar- general of England has pointed out a marked tendency towards the postponement of marriage in that country. Between 1876 and 1905, for instance, the proportion of minors married receded by 43% in the case of men and 32% amongst women. The mean age of husbands married in 1873 was 25-6 years and of wives 24-2, whereas thirty years later the corresponding ages were 28-6 and 26-4. The general results of the decline of the marriage-rate and the postponement of marriage upon the natural growth of population will be discussed in connection with the birth-rate, though the statistics available do not permit of the accurate measurement of the respective influence of these factors, and there are others, too, which have to be taken into consideration, as will appear below. Births. — Apart from the information which the statistics of birth furnish as to the growth of population, they have, like those of marriage, and perhaps to even a greater extent, a special social interest from their bearings upon the moral con- ditions of the community to which they relate. It is in their former capacity, however, that they enter into the present sub- ject. A birth-rate, taken as it usually is upon the total popu- lation, old and young, is open to the objections made above respecting the marriage-rate, and with even more force, as the basis is itself largely the product of the fact which is being measured by it. The internal variations of the rate in a single community, however, can be fairly indicated in this way, as is done in Table VI., which, it is to be noted, refers to those born alive only and excludes the still-born, statistics regarding whom are incomplete. The crude birth-rate, it will be noted, is in general harmony with that of marriage. In the countries where the former is high the rate of marriage is also above the average. In eastern Europe, so far as the figures can be trusted, this is markedly the case, and the birth-rates range between 39 per mille in Hungary and 49 in Russia, where the tradition of encouraging prolificity amongst the peasantry has not been effaced. Among the lower rates which prevail in western Europe, however, the connexion is not so direct, and a low birth-rate is some- times found with a relatively higher marriage rate and vice versa, a deviation from the natural course of events which will 96 POPULATION be discussed presently. The birth-rate, like the marriage-rate, seems to have reached its acme in the seventies, except in the three southern countries, France, Italy and Spain. The decline since the above period is very marked and exceeds that noted in the case of the rate of marriage. It is worth noting, too, that the fall in the crude birth-rate is not confined to the Old World, but has attracted Special attention in Australia and New Zealand, where a rate of 40 per mille in the period 1861-1870 has now given place to one of 26. In Massachusetts and other of the older settlements of the United States, moreover, the same feature has been the subject of investigation. other than abstinence from marriage, at all events at the princi- pal reproductive period; and perhaps to a decrease in marriage or remarriage after middle life, a period of which the weight in the age-distribution has been increasing of late. On the other hand, the postponement of marriage in the case of women of conceptive ages is a tendency which seems to be growing in other countries as well as in England and undoubtedly has a depressing effect upon the rate of births. It would conduce, therefore, to further accuracy in the comparison of the rates of different countries if the latter were to be correlated with greater subdivision of the ages amongst wives between 15 and 45. The proportion of wives below 30 to the total of that group was TABLE VI. Country. (A) Born alive, per 1000 of Total Population. (B) Legitimate Births, per 1000 Wives, 15 to 45 years old. (C) Illegitimate Births, per 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Women, 15 to 45. 1841-1850. 1861-1870. 1871-1875. 1900-1905. 1880-1882. 1890-1892. 1900-1902. 1896-1900. Sweden 3i-i 31-4 30-7 26-7 293 280 269 23-4 Norway 30-7 3°-9 30-3 29-7 314 307 303 16-9 Finland 35-5 34-7 37-o 32-2 3°9 301 18-0 Denmark . 3°-5 31-0 30-8 29-7 287 278 259 23-6 England . 34-6 36-0 36-0 29-0 286 264 235 8-8 Scotland . 34-8 35-o 29-7 3ii 296 272 14-1 Ireland — 26-1 26-4 23-2 283 288 289 3-9 Holland . . . 33-o 35-3 36-1 32-1 347 339 315 9-0 Belgium . 30-5 31-6 32-4 28-5 313 285 251 18-9 Germany 36-1 37-2 38-9 35-5 310 3°' 284 27-7 Austria (W.) . 35-9 35-7 37-2 34-2 281 292 284 41-7 France 27-3 26-3 25-5 21-7 196 173 157 18-1 Italy . . . . — 37-5 36-9 33-5 276 283 269 2I-I Spain . ... — • 37-8 36-5 34-8 258 264 259 — The crude rates which have been discussed above afford no explanation of this change, nor do they always illustrate its full extent. It is necessary, therefore, to eliminate the difference in the age-constitution of the countries in question by excluding from the field of observation, as before, all except possible mothers, basing the rate upon the respective numbers of women of the conceptive age, that is between 15 and 45. The pro- portion borne by this group to the total population is in most cases fairly up to that set forth by Dr Sundbarg in his standard. It is well above it in all three parts of the United Kingdom and falls materially below it only in Scandinavia and Italy. Indeed, during the last generation, this proportion has been in most cases slightly increased, in consequence of the fall of the birth-rate which set in anterior to this period. The stock, then, from which wives are drawn is ample. The question remains, how far advantage is taken of it. According to the Sundbarg standard the percentage married is 48. As has been shown in the preceding paragraph, this is surpassed in Italy, France and Germany, and approached in most of the rest, with the exception of Sweden, Norway and Scotland, which are six or seven points below it, and Ireland, where less than a third are married. The proportion married, moreover, has slightly increased since 1880, except in the United Kingdom. In England the marriage-rate (on the age basis) fell off by 4-6% and in Scotland by 2%, whilst the crude birth-rate declined by 15 and n % respectively. In Ireland the case was different, as the marriage-rate declined by 12% and the birth-rate by no more than 5-7 %. In New South Wales and New Zealand, too, the marriage-rates fell off in the same period by n and 28% respectively, whilst the decline in the birth-rates amounted to 35 and 31 %. In the above countries, therefore, abstinence from matrimony may be said to have been a factor of some importance in the decline. On the continent of Europe, however, looking at the divergence in direction between the crude marriage-rate and that corrected to an age-basis, it is not improbable that the decline in the former may be attributable to some cause mentioned in connexion with the marriage-rate, and in the figures relating to some 30 years back some traces can be found of a connexion between a high birth-rate and a high proportion of young wives. In the present day, however, these indications do not appear, so it would seem that the tendency in question had been interrupted by some other influence, a point to which reference will be made below. If abstinence from marriage and the curtailment of the reproductive period by postponement of marriage be insufficient to account for the material change which has taken place in the birth-rate within the last few decades, it is clear that the latter must be attributable to the diminished fertility of those who are married. On this question the figures in the second portion of Table VI. throws some light. Here the annual number of legitimate births is shown in its proportion to the mean number of married women of conceptive age at each of the three latest enumerations. The rate, it will be seen, has fallen in all the countries specified, except for a slight increase of 2 % in Ireland and an almost stationary condition in Austria and Spain. The decline in Italy and Norway is small, but in France, where for a long time the fertility of the population has been very much below that of any other European country, the birth-rate thus calculated fell by nearly 20%, the same figure being approached in Belgium, where however, the fertility of married women is considerably greater. The case of England is remarkable. In the earlier period its crude birth and marriage-rates were above the average and its proportion of young wives well up to it. Its fertility-rate, however, which was by no means high in 1880, fell by nearly 18% by 1901, and since that date a further fall is reported by the registrar-general, to 24%, leaving the rate below that of all the other European countries except France. The States of Australasia, again, have experienced a decline even more marked. In 1880-1882 their fertility-rate ranged from 300 to 338, a low proportion for a new country, but nearly up to the European standard. By 1900-1902, however,the rate had fallen in all the larger States by from 23 to 31% and the POPULATION 97 highest rate recorded, 253 per thousand conceptive wives, was lower than that of any European country except France and Belgium. The cessation of assisted immigration early in the life of the present generation is alleged to have had considerable influence upon the rate, in Victoria, at least, owing to the curtail- ment of the supply of adult women of the more conceptive ages ami the ageing of those who had reached the country at an earlier date. But neither this nor the diminution of the marriage- rate amongst women of those ages suffices to account for more than a fraction of the decline. The same tendency, moreover, is traceable in the New England States of America, so far as statistics are available. It has been held by some that a phenomenon so widely diffused over the western world must be attributable to physio- logical causes, such as alcoholism, syphilis, the abuse of narcotics and so on. Herbert Spencer, again, before the decline in question set in, put forward the hypothesis that " the ability to maintain individual life and the ability to multiply vary in- versely "; in other words, the strain upon the nervous system involved in the struggle for life under the conditions of modern civilization, by reacting on the reproductive powers, tends towards comparative sterility. These theories, however, being supported, according to the authorities of to-day, by no evidence, statistical or other, need not be here considered. Nor, again, can the decline in fertility be connected with any diminution of material prosperity. On the contrary, the fertility-rate appears to be best maintained in countries by no means distinguished for their high standard of living, such as Spain, Italy, Ireland, and, perhaps, Austria. In this respect Holland stands by itself; but in the others mentioned, with the exception of Ireland, both marriage and birth-rates are high and there has been a comparatively insignificant fall in prolifi- city. The decline has been greatest where the standard of comfort is notoriously high, as in the United States, England and Australasia; also in France, where the general wellbeing reaches probably a lower depth in the community than in any other part of Europe. The comparison of the rates in France with those of Ireland is an instructive illustration of the point under consideration. In France more than half the women of conceptive age are married: in Ireland less than a third, and the proportion of youthful wives in the latter is 28% below that in France. In both the crude birth-rate is far below that of any other European country. But the fertility of the Irish wife exceeded that of her French compeer by 44% in 1880 and by no less than 84% twenty years later. So steady, indeed, has been the prolificity of Ireland, that from being ninth on the list at the earlier period mentioned, it is now inferior only to Holland and perhaps Finland in this respect. It need not be assumed, however, that because these rates cannot be associated with the comparative degree of prosperity attained by the individual community they are altogether inde- pendent of the economic factors mainly contributing to that condition, such as trade, employment and prices. It is difficult, indeed, if not impracticable, to disentangle the effects which should be respectively attributed to influences so closely related to each other; but, of the three, prices alone tend to sufficient uniformity in their course in different countries to justify a supposition that they are in some way connected with a phenom- enon so widely diffused as that of the decline in marriage and fertility. It is not improbable, therefore, that the fall in whole- sale prices which, with temporary interruptions, persisted between 1870 and looo, in general harmony with the other movement, may have conduced to reluctance on the part of those who have enlarged their notions of the standard of comfort to en- danger their prospects of enjoying it by incurring the additional expenses of family life. Matrimony may be postponed, or, when entered upon, may be rendered a lighter burden upon the bread- winner. The economic element in the situation, which is imposed upon the individual by circumstances, is thus modified voluntarily into a moral or prudential consideration. In this case diminished prolificity where unaccompanied by a decrease in the number of marriages at reproductive ages, is attributable xxn. 4 to the voluntary restriction of child-bearing on the part of the married. This explanation of the decline is supported by the almost unanimous opinion of the medical profession in the countries in question, and substantial evidence can be found everywhere of the extensive prevalence of the doctrine and practice of what has been termed, in further derogation of the repute of the " much misrepresented Malthus," Neomal- thusianism. Preventive measures of this kind have long been in use in France, with the result shown in Tables V. and VI., and from that country they have spread, mostly since 1870, nearly all over western Europe, as well as to the Anglo- Saxon world beyond the seas; but are scarcely apparent in countries where the Roman church has a strong hold on the people. It is generally held that the practice of thus limiting families usually prevails, in the first instance, among the better- off classes, and in time niters down, as " the gospel of comfort " is accepted by those of less resources, until the prolificity of the whole community is more or less affected by it. The registrar general for England, indeed, has stated that whilst no more than about 17% of the decline in the birth-rate can be attributed to abstinence or postponement of marriage, nearly 70% should be ascribed to voluntary restriction. The question of illegitimate births is the last to be here mentioned. It appears to be connected to a considerable extent with the subject dealt with above. In nearly every country the rate of these births has of late years shown a marked fall, which is by some ascribed to the adoption of the same expedients in illicit intercourse as are becoming conventional amongst the married. The rates given at the end of Table VI. are calculated upon the number of women most likely to produce them, that is, the spinsters, widows and divorced of conceptive age. In comparing the different countries, it may be noted that in some parts of Europe the rate is raised by the inclusion of the off- spring of marriages not registered as demanded by law, though duly performed in church. Then, again, the possibility of legitimization by subsequent marriage tends to raise the rate. Italy and Scotland may be taken as examples of these two influences, and in Germany, too, the rates in Saxony and Bavaria, which are among the highest in Europe, are in part due to the non-registration of marriages sanctioned by religious ceremony only. The low rates in Ireland, Holland and England are especially noticeable, and in the last named, the decrease between 1870 and 1905 amounted to more than 50%, not, however, entirely due, it is said, to improved morality. Deaths. — The forces tending towards the natural growth of population, which have been described above, differ from that which acts in the opposite direction in two material features. Marriage and child-bearing, in the first place, are operative amongst a fraction of the population only — those of conceptive age; whereas to the Urn of Death, as Dr Farr expressed it, all ages are called upon to contribute in their differing degrees. Then, again, the former are voluntary acts, entirely under the control of the individual; but mortality, though not beyond human regulation, is far less subject to it, and in order to have sub- stantial results the control must be the outcome of collective rather than individual co-operation. The course of the marriage and birth-rates, set forth above, affords evidence that the control over both has been exercised of recent years to an un- precedented extent, and it will appear from what is stated below, that partly owing to this cause, partly, also, to improved hygienic conditions in western life, there has been an even more pronounced decline in the rate of mortality. The general results of both upon the natural increase of population in the countries selected for illustration of this subject will be found at the end of this paragraph. For the purpose of showing this, the crude death-rate, taken, like that of births, upon the whole population, without distinction of age or sex, will suffice. Where, however, the tendency to mortality, not its results, is in question, both the above factors must be taken into account, as they have been above in distinguishing the rate of fertility from that of births. The process of correcting the mere numbers of annual deaths per thousand of population into a form which renders 98 POPULATION the return comparable with those for communities differently constituted is somewhat complicated, but it is amply justified by its necessity in adapting the figures to the important services they perform in actuarial and sanitary science. This subject can only be dealt with here in outline. In the first place, sex must be distinguished, because, from infancy upwards, except between the ages of 10 and 20, the mortality amongst females is considerably less than amongst the other sex, and appears, too, to be declining more rapidly. So far as